Abstract
In an interview study conducted among smallholder rice farmers in Rufiji, Tanzania coastal mainland, and in Cheju, Zanzibar, farmer’s pesticide use and risk awareness were assessed. The farmers generally lacked knowledge or possibilities to manage the pesticides as prescribed by the manufacturers. Few farmers knew what kind of pesticides they were using and had never seen the original packages, as pesticides were usually sold per weight or already diluted without labeling. Protective equipment was rarely used since they were not aware of risks associated with pesticides or did not know where to purchase protective gear. Only half of the farmers were aware of pesticides’ health hazards and few associated pesticides with environmental problems. The pesticide use was relatively low, but based on farmers’ pesticide handling and application practices, health risks were a major concern. Most farmers did not believe in successful rice cultivation without using pesticides to control pests. However, estimated yields did not differ between pesticide users or farmers using conventional methods or neem tree extract. To avoid negative effects on human health and the environment, the farmers need basic education and better assistance in their farming practices and pesticide management.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Notes
Ruaruke is located outside of the delta and lacks mangroves but was included in the study since a large proportion of the village’s inhabitants grow rice in the mangroves of the other villages.
References
Abdullah, A., Bajet, C., Matin, M., Nhan, D., & Sulaiman, A. (1997). Ecotoxicology of pesticides in the tropical paddy field ecosystem. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 16, 59–70.
Antle, J. M., & Capalbo, S. M. (1994). Pesticides, productivity, and farmer health: Implications for regulatory policy and agricultural research. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 76, 598–602.
Antle, J. M., & Pingali, P. L. (1994). Pesticides productivity and farmer health: A Philippine case study. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 76, 418–430.
Clarke, E. E. K., Levy, L. S., Spurgeon, A., & Calvert, I. A. (1997). The problems associated with pesticide use by irrigation workers in Ghana. Occupational Medicine, 47(5), 301–308.
Denholm, I., & Rowland, M. W. (1992). Tactics for managing pesticide resistance in arthropods: Theory and practice. Annual Review of Entomology, 37(1), 91–112.
Department of Environment, Institute of Marine Sciences, Subcomission for Forestry, Subcomission for Fisheries and Integrated Planning Unit. (1996). Towards integrated management and sustainable development of Zanzibar’s coast. Findings and recommendations for an action strategy in the Chwaka bay-Paje area (p. 54), Rhode Island, ICAM, Zanzibar, USA.
FAO, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. (2003). International code of conduct on the distribution and use of pesticides (revised version). Italy: Rome.
FAOSTAT. (2008). http://faostat.fao.org. Accessed September 1, 2010.
Hanshi, J. (2001). Use of pesticides and personal protective equipment by applicators in a Kenyan district. African Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety, 11(2), 74–76.
Institute of Marine Sciences of Zanzibar GIS Database. (2010). Area calculations performed by Dr. Christopher Muhando in GIS.
Kohler, P. M., Roemer-Mahler, A., & Templeton, J. (2008). Summary of the fourth meeting of persistant organic pollutants review committee of the Stockholm convention: 13–17 October 2008. Earth Negotiations Bulletin, 15(161).
Kruitwagen, G., Pratap, H. B., Covaci, A., & Wendelaar Bonga, S. E. (2008). Status of pollution in mangrove ecosystems along the coast of Tanzania. Marine Pollution Bulletin, 56(5), 1022–1031.
Leveridge, Y. (1996). Pesticide poisoning in Costa Rica during 1996. Veterinary and Human Toxicology, 40, 42–44.
Macha, M., Rwazo, A., & Mkalanga, H. (2001). Retail sale of pesticides in Tanzania: Occupational human health and safety considerations. African Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety, 11, 40–42.
MAFST (The United Republic of Tanzania) Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security. (2003). Participatory agricultural development and empowerment project (PADEP), resettlement policy framework.
Masalu, D. C. P. (2003). Challenges of coastal area management in coastal developing countries—lessons from the proposed Rufiji delta prawn farming project, Tanzania. Ocean and Coastal Management, 46, 175–188.
Matthews, G., Wiles, T., & Baleguel, P. (2003). A survey of pesticide application in Cameroon. Crop Protection, 22(5), 707–714.
Mbakaya, C., Ohayo-Mitoko, G., Simwa, J., Ngowi, V. A. F., Maeda, D., Stephens, J., Mbabazi, M. (1996). A survey on the use of organochlorine, organophosphate and pyrethroid pesticides in crop protection in East Africa. African Newsletter on Occupational Health and Safety, 6(2), 34–36.
McConnell, R., & Hruska, A. J. (1993). An epidemic of pesticide poisoning in Nicaragua: Implications of prevention in developing countries. American Journal of Public Health, 83, 1559–1562.
Mmochi, A. (2005). Chemodynamics of pesticide residues and metabolites in Zanzibar coastal marine environment. PhD Thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
Mmochi, A. J., & Mberek, R. S. (1998). Trends in the types, amounts, and toxicity of pesticides used in Tanzania: Efforts to control pesticide pollution in Zanzibar, Tanzania. Ambio, 27(8), 669–676.
Mohammed, S. M. (1990). Pollution by industry and other users of chemicals. Zanzibar Environmental Study Series (Vol. 2).
Mwevura, H. (2007). Chemodynamics of pesticide residues and other persistent organic pollutants within the Rufiji delta and dolphins from the coastal waters of Zanzibar. PhD thesis, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.
NBS, National Bureau of Statistics, Tanzania. (2002). http://www.nbs.go.tz/. Accessed July 5, 2010.
Ngowi, V. A. F. (2002). Health impact of exposure to pesticides in agriculture in Tanzania. PhD Thesis, University of Tampere, Finland.
Ngowi, V. A. F., Maeda, D., Wesseling, C., Partanen, T., Sanga, M., & Mbise, G. (2001). Pesticide-handling practices in agriculture in Tanzania: Observational data from 27 coffee and cotton farms. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health, 7, 326–332.
NLUP, National Land Use Plan. (1995). Appraisal: Analysis of potentials and issues. Zanzibar Integrated Land and Environmental Management Project. Finnish International Development Agency—National Board of Survey (Vol. S.02).
Nyambo, B. T., Masaba, D. M., & Hakiza, G. J. (1996). Integrated pest management of coffee for small-scale farmers in East Africa: Needs and limitations. Integrated Pest Management Reviews, 1(3), 125–132.
Obopile, M., Munthali, D. C., & Matilo, B. (2008). Farmers’ knowledge, perceptions and management of vegetable pests and diseases in Botswana. Crop Protection, 27(8), 1220–1224.
Pimentel, D., & Acquay, H. (1992). Environmental and economic costs of pesticide use. BioScience, 42(10), 750–760.
Pingali, P. L., Marquez, C. B., & Palis, F. G. (1994). Pesticides and Philippine Rice Farmer Health: A medical and economic analysis. American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 76, 587–592.
Riddles, P. W., & Nolan, J. (1987). Prospects for the management of arthropod resistance to pesticides. International Journal for Parasitology, 17(2), 679–687.
RDC, Rufiji District Council. (2007a). Preliminary issue assessment report 2007. United Republic of Tanzania, Regional Administration and Local Government (Ed.).
RDC, Rufiji District Council. (2007b). Integrated coastal management plan. United Republic of Tanzania, Regional Administration and Local Government (Ed.).
Stadlinger, N. (2008). Possible risks and effects of pesticide usage on rice fields in the Cheju area, Zanzibar. Master thesis, Dept. Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden.
Taylor, M., Ravilious, C., & Green, E. P. (2003). Mangroves of East Africa. UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series (Vol. 13).
Thapinta, A., & Hudak, P. F. (2000). Pesticide use and residual occurrence in Thailand. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 60(1), 103–114.
Tomlin, C. (2000). A world compendium: The pesticide manual (12th ed.). Incorporating the agrochemical handbook. Crop Protection Publications, TOMRIC News Agency.
Turpie, J. K. (2000). The use and value of natural resources of the Rufiji floodplain and delta, Tanzania. Rufiji Environmental Management Project (REMP) and IUCN—Eastern Africa Regional Office.
Walshaw, S. C. (2010). Converting to rice: Urbanization, islamization and crops on Pemba Island, Tanzania. World Archaeology, 42(1), 137–154.
Wang, Y., Bonynge, G., Nugranad, J., & Traber, M. (2003). Remote sensing of mangrove change along the Tanzania Coast. Marine Geodesy, 26, 1–14.
Wesseling, C., McConnell, R., Partanen, T., & Hogstedt, C. (1997). Agricultural pesticide use in developing countries: Health effects and research needs. International Journal of Health Services, 27, 273–308.
Williamson, S. (2005). Breaking the barriers to IPM in Africa: Evidence from Benin, Ethiopia, Ghana and Senegal. In J. Pretty (Ed.), The pesticide detox—towards a more sustainable agriculture. London, UK: Earthscan.
Williamson, S., Ball, A., & Pretty, J. (2008). Trends in pesticide use and drivers for safer pest management in four African countries. Crop Protection, 27(10), 1327–1334.
Wilson, C., & Tisdell, C. (2001). Why farmers continue to use pesticides despite environmental, health and sustainability costs. Ecological Economics, 39, 449–462.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank N. Kautsky, A. Sjögren, and two anonymous referees for valuable comments on the manuscript, and Rose Mwaipopo for major input on the questionnaire and assisting us in Rufiji. The study would not have been possible to conduct without the help and cooperation of the respondents, Aisha Dallu, Rajab R. Mgongo, F. Sima, A. Kipalanga, and T. Porseryd assisting in the field. The study was funded by Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Additional information
Readers should send their comments on this paper to BhaskarNath@aol.com within 3 months of publication of this issue.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Stadlinger, N., Mmochi, A.J., Dobo, S. et al. Pesticide use among smallholder rice farmers in Tanzania. Environ Dev Sustain 13, 641–656 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-010-9281-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10668-010-9281-5