Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

ISSN No:-2456-2165

Influence of Offenders’ Literacy Levels on Offenders’

Rehabilitation through Vocational Training at
Kisumu and Kisii Prisons Commands
Charles Ouma Omondi1, Calvince Barack Omondi2 and Jane Lusenaka Khasoa3

Abstract:- After the Dark Era of Colonial Kenya’s I. INTRODUCTION

retribution-oriented prisons system, prisons reform
policy encompasses a rehabilitation concept entailing In the aftermath of colonialism in African nations, the
three main programs: vocational training, formal enduring legacies of colonial rule continue to shape the
educational program (primarily primary and secondary formulation of public policies, particularly those aimed at
education), and psychological and social (including societal transformation and the well-being of their citizens.
religious components). Despite existence in principle, Within the context of prisons, countries formerly colonized
policy practice faces a myriad of challenges and policy by the British inherited punitive prison practices deeply
analysis research is required to unpack dynamics of rooted in the British philosophy of retribution and
practice and generate ecidence for improvement. This incapacitation, which prioritized discipline and harsh
study, zooming in on vocational training program (VTP), treatment (Onyango-Israel, 2018). These practices not only
examined the influence of offenders’ literacy on the subjected inmates to emotional torment in prisons that
uptake of the said program. The study focused on Kisumu resembled graveyards during colonial times but also left
Prisons Command, the third-largest prison hosting male lasting imprints on the Kenyan penal system (Ibid). Barik
and female inmates, and Kisii Prisons Command, the (2018, p.128) aptly describes the incapacitation approach as
Nyanza region's second-largest prison. Three specific one that placed a heavy emphasis on arduous and
objectives guided the investigation: Adopting the unproductive labor while intentionally making the prison
Constructivist Learning Theoretical Model and environment as inhospitable as possible. Some scholarly
employing a mixed-methods approach, the study collected works argue that these punitive disciplinary approaches,
data from various sources, including male and female while detrimental to all inmates, disproportionately affected
inmates, vocational training instructors, prison officers- women offenders and inmates (Barik, 2018; Penal Reform
in-charge, and external program collaborators. International [PRI], 2008).
Qualitative insights were drawn through interviews with
9 officers-in-charge, 10 vocational training instructors, Despite the recognition of the gendered impact of
and 6 social welfare officers, equally distributed between punitive prison practices, research on prison reform initiatives
Kisii and Kisumu. Quantitative data were collected via such as the Vocational Training Program (VTP) has largely
semi-structured questionnaires administered to male and overlooked the gender dimension, failing to explore how such
female inmates, with sample sizes determined using programs might differently affect the rehabilitation of male
Fischer et al.'s (1998) formula. Study showed that literacy and female offenders. This study seeks to address this critical
levels remain low in both men and women prisons; more gap in the literature by investigating the gendered
female offenders are enrolled into literacy, gendered and implications of prison reform efforts, specifically focusing on
prison-context aspects of VTP uptake obtain and thus the the VTP.
need for more targeted policies focusing on literacy as a
The study primarily delved into the examination of how
pre-cursor to enhancing VTP programs. The study
literacy levels impact the participation of both male and
emphasized the importance of designing programs that
female offenders in the Vocational Training Program (VTP)
consider offenders' varying literacy levels to maximize
and, consequently, the program's capacity to rehabilitate them
their engagement and benefits. Conclusively, this
equitably. Existing literature universally acknowledges that
research brought together theoretical frameworks and
the VTP must take into consideration the literacy levels of
empirical investigation to provide actionable insights with
prison inmates in its design and implementation (Graaf,
implications for policy and practice. The findings
2007). Gender-focused analyses of previous studies, both
contribute to a more comprehensive understanding of
within Kenya (Mbathi et al., 2019) and beyond its borders
offender rehabilitation through VTPs, offering guidance
(Burrow, 2011; IPR, 2008), consistently reveal that female
for future initiatives that prioritize gender-sensitive
offenders tend to have markedly higher rates of illiteracy
approaches and holistic inmate rehabilitation.
compared to their male counterparts. This observation
Keywords:- Offenders’ literacy, rehabilitation, Kisumu logically suggests that the uptake of the VTP among female
prison, Kisii prison. offenders might be lower in comparison to male offenders. In
the United States, Burrow (2011) discovered that a significant
number of inmates, regardless of their African or Asian
origins, had low literacy levels. Onyango-Israel emphasizes
in his review of Institutional Treatment of Female Offenders
in Kenya that the population of female offenders is on the rise,

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
with a majority of them hailing from impoverished To appraise the relationship of offenders’ literacy and
backgrounds, often dealing with issues like HIV/AIDS, uptake of VTP as a rehabilitative mechanism is it important
exhibiting low literacy levels, and grappling with substance to acknowledge the impact of formal education on uptake of
abuse. He further asserts that rehabilitation programs in VTP. Extant studies while acknowledging the need for this
prisons should prioritize female inmates and be tailored to trajectory of research have not yet examined this relationship.
address their unique characteristics. This assertion is further Mbatha (2019) for example establishes that o ground where
substantiated by a recent survey conducted by the VTP remains incapable to delivering rehabilitation of
Government of Kenya (GoK) in 2021, known as the offenders is the lack of evidence of whether offenders need
Household Economic Survey, which shows a 9.8% increase VTP or formal education or both simultaneously. Mucemi
in the number of women offenders. Maina & Mugambi (2010) finds that for those ex-offenders who were trained at
(2019) have found that low literacy levels significantly prisons – that is formal education – their educational
impede offenders' ability to fully engage in vocational outcomes was better than those who only acquired VTP,
training, as they often need to cover basic literacy skills implying a need for formal education not just to increase
before comprehending the course content. However, Maina uptake of VTP while in prisons, but also to increase chances
& Mugambi's study does not delve into whether the for better performance in post-prison furthering of formal
vocational courses offered consider the specific needs of education by ex-offenders.
female offenders or to what extent female offenders' literacy
levels affect their participation in vocational training. This This study also examined the influence of formal
present study aims to explore how this critical aspect of education on course choice by inmates. With low levels of
offenders' perspectives contributes to varying levels of literacy as many studies have shown across countries and
participation in the VTP. prisons (Obondi, 2010; Mutemi, 2017; Wambugu, 2019;
Ondigo, Rono & Kerre, n.d; Ngachra & Kimokoti, 2023;
II. LITERATURE REVIEW Ndegwa, 2014; Mburu, 2021; Musau, 2014; Nancy, 2012;
Koome, Wafula & Nyonje, 2019; Mbugua, 2011), it is
The existing literature problematizes the relationship important to understand empirically how offnders’ level of
between literacy levels, vocational training, and offender education/literacy basically influences that offenders’ choice
rehabilitation but empirical work that have investigated this of course, in terms of the type of course offender feels capable
problem remain dearth. Notably, Garcia (2007) highlights to undertake successfully. The analysis is done by prison and
that the lack of basic literacy among a number of offenders is by gender to reveal the intricacies therein for more practical
likely a hindrance to effective rehabilitation of offenders policy recommendations.
owing to the fact that the educational backgrounds of inmates
is largely poor (post-secondary and below). However, the Lastly, the final dimension of the relationship between
study doesn’t engage in case-oriented analysis of how the two offenders’ literacy and uptake of VTP examined in this study
variables interact with each other. is offenders’ needs and the prioritization between formal
education and VTP. The study examined what offenders think
Furthermore, a notable research gap emerges regarding should be done to them first, formal education or direct
the gender responsiveness of vocational training program involvement into VTP? Previous studies do not engage in this
processes, specifically in addressing the unique needs and analysis, albeit some acceptance that both formal education
challenges faced by women inmates, or the need for gender- and VTP are important rehabilitation programs in prisons
differentiated programs (Onyango, 2013). This study while (Mukinisi, 2015; Maritim, Otieno & Kisimbii, 2018;
highlighting how literacy affect update of vocational training Lumumba, 2016; Okang’a, 2014; Nyariki, Bor & Onsarigo,
program (VTP) examines this relationship across the prisons 2019; Mandela, 2015).
(Kisumu and Kisii) and across gender.
Therefore, this study engages in an empirical analysis
A dimension of the relationship between offenders’ of the relationship of offenders’ level of their rehabilitation
literacy and ability of the VTP to have an impact on them is through VTP. Specifically, the study examines the influence
understanding whether they are enrolled into these programs. offenders’ literacy levels have on the capacity of thew VTP
Onyango (2013), Mbatha (2019), Ndegwa (2014) all argue to empower the offenders through proper skills acquisition.
that Kenyan prisons still exhibit low enrolment into
vocational training programs. Mutemi (2017) argues that III. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
there is the low enrollment into VTP is a matter of many
factors, including funding, but also the lack of offenders’ This study employed certain methods keenly chosen to
capacity to enroll into technical courses. This study stretches collect data, analyze and interpret the data. These methods are
this analysis to understand the role of literacy into enrollment categorized into research design, study area, research
of offenders into VTP. The study makes this analysis first population, sampling procedures and size, reliability and
through the viewpoint of the variances from prison to prison validity, data collection, and finally data analysis methods.
(the two selected prisons). Gender and prison context
perspectives are critical in highlighting how solutions to VPT
can be tailored, need be, for optimal uptake.

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
The study employed a descriptive survey design to examined the status of inmates’ basic literacy across
gather authentic information in alignment with its focus on designations, prisons, and gender.
the influence of offenders’ literacy on their rehabilitation
through VTP. A mixed-method approach was chosen,  Status of Reading and Writing by Designation
involving the simultaneous collection of both quantitative and This table 1 below explores the relationship between
qualitative data. This concurrent approach was deemed respondents' designations in the prison environment, their
appropriate due to a prior mapping study that had already gender, their prison of stay, and their literacy levels. The data
assessed the feasibility of the research focus, eliminating the is presented in terms of counts and percentages.
need for a sequential data collection process. The qualitative
data were collected through Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) In this table, the data is categorized by respondents'
and Focus Group Discussions. The integration of both types designations in the prison environment. It's apparent that the
of data was planned to facilitate triangulation. Furthermore, majority of inmates (15.2%) reported not knowing how to
the research took place in Kisumu and Kisii command read and write, suggesting a painstakingly high level of
prisons, selected based on their size, experience, and illiteracy among this group. This is a calling upon policy
involvement in vocational training programs. The two prisons implementers of the formal educational programs to make
are leading in Western Kenya in terms of number of offenders such programs robust and comprehensive to cover most
they host. Moreover, VTP programs have been practiced in offenders, particularly those whose literacy is low or none at
these prisons longest relative to other prisons in Western the point of admission into prisons.
Kenya and they also both male and female offenders, hence
During the interviews with Trainers and Officer in
enabling a gendered-analysis of the findings. These prisons
Charges (OICs), the study established that there are three
were expected to provide a representative sample and enable
important literacy/formal educational programs that are
generalization of findings. The research population included
available to the inmates in the prisons, namely primary
key informants and survey participants, with a sample size of
education, secondary education, and tertiary – theological-
369 offenders, calculated using Fisher's et al. (1998) formula.
based training which only available within Kisumu Prisons
To ensure reliability and validity, triangulation, mapping
Command. Most inmates reported during the focus group
exercises, pre-test studies, and data split techniques were
discussions (FGDs) that they had not gone to any school at all
employed. Data analysis involved both quantitative and
or dropped at lower classes because no one could support
qualitative methods, encompassing various stages to
them to go on with education. This sits well with findings
comprehensively explore vocational training programs in
from other studies. For example, Mbugua (2011) argues that
Kenyan prisons.
most offenders come from poor backgrounds and had no
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS opportunities for legal jobs leading them to criminal
activities. This further reinforces the need for making the
This study analyzed the intricate interplay between formal education program more robust to cover as many
offenders' literacy levels and their engagement with people as possible. For example, UNDP (2015) argues that
vocational training programs within the prison context of inclusion of vulnerable populations perspectives is
Kisumu and Kisii Command Prisons. Guided by the impossible without empowering them. Thus, for a genuine
Constructivist Learning Theory, this chapter sheds light on constructivist model of rehabilitation, it is important to target
the complex relationship between gender, prison inmates with literacy enhancing programs.
environments, literacy levels, and the adoption of vocational
training as a rehabilitation strategy. The following sections Among other designations, such as Trainer Police
present the empirical findings obtained through cross- Officers and VTP Officers in Charge, all respondents in these
tabulated analyses, providing a comprehensive understanding categories reported knowing how to read and write. This
of the nuances underlying inmates' interactions with could be attributed to the nature of their roles, which might
vocational training programs and literacy enhancement involve communication and administrative tasks that require
initiatives. literacy skills. Moreover, it is a requirement during
recruitment that all potential recruitees into national police
A. Reading and Writing by Designation, Name of Prison and service have a form four education (Government of Kenya,
by Gender 2022).
Reading and writing are foundational elements of literacy
particularly within prisons environments (Okang’a, 2014;
Nyariki, Bor & Onsarigo, 2019; Mandela, 2015; Koome,
Wafula & Nyonje, 2019). Actually Koome, Wafula & Nyonje
(2019), argues that educational programs in prisons is a key
variable for inmates’ rehabilitation. In this sense, the study

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Table 1: Reading and Writing by Designation
3. Which of the following designations fits you in this prison environment? * 18. Do you know how to
read and write? Cross-tabulation
Count
18. Do you know how to read and Total
write?
Yes No
3. Which of the following Inmate 50 (15.2%) 278 (84.8%) 328 (100%)
designations fits you in this Trainer Police Officer 26(100%) 0(0%) 26(100)
prison environment? VTP Officer in Charge 15(100%) 0(0%) 15(100%)
Total 91 (24.5%) 278(75.5%) 369 (100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

The data in this table does not explicitly focus on  Status of Reading and Writing by Gender
gender, but it provides insight into the literacy levels across This table 2 examines the relationship between
different roles within the prison environment. The high respondents' gender and their literacy levels, presented in
percentage of inmates who reported knowing how to read and frequencies and percentages. Among male respondents,
write is a positive indicator of access to education within the 19%% reported knowing how to read and write, while among
prison system. However, without gender-specific data, we female respondents, 10%% reported the same. Among the
can't draw conclusions about how literacy might differ "None-inmates" category, OICs and Trainers, all respondents
between male and female inmates. For a more nuanced reported knowing how to read and write.
understanding of gendered perspectives on literacy, it's
crucial to analyze gender-specific data in subsequent tables

Table 2: Reading and Writing by Gender

2. Respondent’s Gender? * 18. Do you know how to read and write? Cross-tabulation
Count
18. Do you know how to read and write?
Yes No Total
3. Which of the following Male 35(19%) 147(81%) 182(100%)
designations fits you in this Female 15(10%) 131(90%) 146(100%)
prison environment? None-inmates 41(100%) 0 41(100%)
Total 91(15.2%) 278(84.8%) 369(100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

The data demonstrates a significant difference in  Status of Reading and Writing by Name of Prison
literacy levels between male and female respondents. Males This table 3 below explores the relationship between the
tend to have a higher percentage of literacy compared to respondents' prison of stay and their literacy levels, presented
females. From the focus group discussions, this difference in percentages it explores the literacy levels of respondents
was attributed to various factors, including access to based on the prison they are staying in. The data as
education before incarceration and potential gender-specific summarized below shows that across prisons the levels of
barriers to education. To address gendered perspectives on literacy is a serious problem. In Kisii Women, only 7.8%
literacy, it's important to consider the unique challenges that were able to read and write, only 17% from Kisumu Women
female inmates might face in accessing education and were able to read and write. Kisumu Maximum reported
improving their literacy skills. The value of this finding is that higher levels at 22% and this was due to the availability of
it adds a gendered lens to understanding the status of basic both secondary and primary with the premises of the
literacy at prisons, going beyond non-gendered analyses that Maximum as revealed through observation, and key
is common in previous studies, targeting mainly male prisons, informant interviews. Moreover, many trainees of VTP from
and effectively silencing the voices of the female offenders Kisumu Medium reported that they were assigned to the firms
(Mbugua, 2011; Koome, Wafula & Nyonje, 2019; Okang’a, and had not time to attend to school, and also there were cases
2014; Mandela, 2015). In the spirit of the theory of where some inmates who had very good secondary
Constructivist Learning, this study provides an opportunity to performance papers, could not be transferred to Maximum
tailor-make initiatives toward education of inmates to the where secondary school is located. Kisii Main Campus
needs of a given gender, focusing more on females who witnessed the highest number of those who could read and
remain largely illiterate, not even knowing how to read and write in terms of intra-cohort sample (85.6%). Officers from
write. Kisii Main argued that thus was due to the currently
overwhelming numbers they receive and without
commensurate number of educators, classrooms, and other
teaching facilities. This in line with what Okang’a (2014)

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
finds out, when he argues that reformation of offenders at The "Non-inmates" category (referring to staff or non-
Kisumu Prions was complicated due to lack of officers to inmates working within the prison, that is, officers in in-
teach and the increasingly additional numbers. charges and professional officers/ VTP Trainers) all reported
knowing how to read and write.

Table 3: Reading and Writing by Prison

Count
2. What is the name of your prison of stay? * 18. Do you know how to read and write? Cross-tabulation
Count
18. Do you know how to read and write? Total
Yes No
Kisii Women 6 (7.8%) 71(92.2%) 77 (100%)
Kisumu Women 9 (17.0%) 45 (83.0%) 54 (100%)
2. What is the name of your Kisumu Maximum 15(22.0%) 53 (78.0%) 68 (100%)
prison of stay? Kisumu Medium 9 (17.0%) 44(83.0%) 53 (100%)
Kisii Main 11(14.4%) 65(85.6%) 76(100%)
Non-inmates 41(100%) 0(0%) 41(100%)
Total 91(24.7%) 278(75.3%) 369(100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

The data suggests variations in literacy levels across the prison environment. This understanding can inform
different prisons. While the data doesn't explicitly focus on targeted interventions to address gender-specific challenges
gender, it underscores the importance of considering prison- in accessing education and enhancing literacy skills for
specific factors when implementing literacy enhancement effective rehabilitation.
programs. Gendered perspectives should also be considered
to ensure equitable access to education and rehabilitation B. Enrolment into a Formal Education by Name of Prison
programs, especially in prisons where literacy rates are lower. and by Gender
Such considerations can help address gender-based
disparities in literacy within the prison context. In summary,  Enrolment into a Formal Education by Gender
analyzing the cross-tabulated data in terms of percentages and The table 3 below examines the relationship between
interpreting the implications for gendered perspectives on respondents' gender and whether they have been enrolled in
literacy reveals insights into the literacy levels of respondents formal education programs within the prison. The data is
based on their gender, prison of stay, and designations within presented in terms of counts and percentages.

Table 4: Enrolment into a Formal Education by Name of Prison and by Gender

1. Gender of Respondent * 19. Have you been enrolled into the formal education going on in this prison?
Cross-tabulation
Count
19. Have you ever been enrolled into the formal Total
education going on in this prison?
Yes No N/A
Male 67(28%) 144(61%) 27(11%) 238(100%)
1. Gender of Respondent
Female 59(45%) 58(44%) 14(11%) 131(100%)
Total 126(34%) 202(55%) 41(11%) 369(100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

This section explored the enrollment of respondents in Interview with Kisumu Women Officer-in-Charges
formal education programs within the prison environment showed that the institution has taken formal education
based on their gender. Among male respondents, 28% seriously are encouraging the inmates to prioritize the classes.
reported being enrolled in formal education, while among The sentiments were shared by Kisii OICs, who, however,
female respondents, 45% reported the same. The table also showed that there were gaps in terms of teaching equipment,
shows that there are some respondents in both categories who lack of resources for innovative teaching, and lack of enough
haven't been enrolled (evident in the "No" count) or for whom staff, to teach a good number of offenders.
the question is not applicable (evident in the "N/A" count).
The data indicates that a higher percentage of female  Enrolment into a Formal Education by Name of Prison
respondents have been enrolled in formal education programs This table 5 explores the relationship between the
compared to male respondents. This suggests a positive step respondents' prison of stay and their enrollment in formal
toward solving the problem of high illiteracy especially in education programs, presented in percentages.
female population as the table 3 showed.

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Table 5: Enrolment into a Formal Education by Name of Prison
2. What is the name of your prison of stay? * 19. Have you been enrolled into the formal education going on in this
prison? Cross-tabulation
Count
19. Have you been enrolled into the formal education Total
going on in this prison?
Yes No N/A
Kisii Women 27(32%) 50(60%) 7(8%) 84(100%)
Kisumu Women 35(56%) 18(29%) 9(15%) 62(100%)
2. What is the name of your
Kisumu Maximum 15(19%) 54(69%) 9(12%) 78(100%)
prison of stay?
Kisumu Medium 17(28%) 36(62%) 8(13%) 61(100%)
Kisii Main 22(26%) 54(64%) 8(10%) 84(100%)
Total 126(34%) 202(55%) 41(11%) 369(100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

The sub-section examines the enrollment of underscore the importance of continued investment in
respondents in formal education programs within the prison educational programs within the prison system, particularly
environment based on the name of the prison they are staying with attention to gender-specific needs and equitable access
in. Different prisons have different percentages of across different prisons. Mutemi (2017) asserts that there is
respondents who have been enrolled in formal education. The high need for such investments to include regular
data reveals variations in enrollment percentages across disbursement of funds to enable acquiring of resources
different prisons. In Kisii Women 32% are enrolled, in needed for education and the employment of teacher officers
Kisumu Women it is 56%, in Kisumu Maximum it is 19%, in with educational background in primary and secondary
Kisumu Medium it is 28%, while Kisii main it was 26%. education. In sum, analyzing the cross-tabulated data for
"Kisumu Women" prison has the highest percentage (56%) of enrollment in formal education programs based on gender and
respondents who have been enrolled in formal education, prison names provides insights into the disparities in
while "Kisii Women" prison has a lower percentage (32%). educational access. These insights can inform policies and
These differences were reported to be influenced by factors interventions to ensure gender equity and equal opportunities
such as available educational programs, resources, and for education within the prison context.
prison-specific policies, in Kisii Women the salient
explanation was the post-primary education was not seriously  Enhancement of Literacy Levels by Gender
taken, with the available slots largely for primary option, This table examines the relationship between
further limiting women empowerment through education. respondents' gender and whether their literacy levels have
been enhanced after enrolling in formal education programs
Enrollment in formal education programs within the within the prison. The data is presented in terms of counts and
prison environment is a vital indicator of inmates' access to percentages. Among male respondents, 28% reported that
educational opportunities. The data suggests variations in their literacy levels have been enhanced, while among female
enrollment rates based on both gender and the name of the respondents, 45% reported the same. The table also shows
prison. Higher enrollment rates among females and in certain that there are some respondents for whom the question is not
prisons indicate that efforts are being made to address applicable (evident in the "N/A" count), likely due to not
gendered perspectives on access to education. These findings being enrolled in formal education.

Table 6: Enhancement of Literacy Levels by Gender

1. Gender of Respondent * 20. If yes in 17 above, has your literacy levels been enhanced
(can you now read and write)? Cross-tabulation
Count
20. If yes in 17 above, has your Total
literacy levels been enhanced?
Yes N/A
Male 67 (28%) 171(72%) 238(100%)
1. Gender of Respondent
Female 59 (45%) 72 (55%) 131 (100%)
Total 126 (34%) 243 (66%) 369 (100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

The data indicated that formal education generally has education programs compared to female respondents. This
an impact on both genders and should be encouraged as a suggests that there are some concerted efforts put into place
factor in enhancing the rehabilitation capacity of the VTP to make the formal education programs more effective in
program. Scrutinized further, however, the data indicates that enhancing literacy skills for female inmates. Policy
a higher percentage of female respondents reported their implications for this finding which were shared from the
literacy levels being enhanced after enrolling in formal interviews involved tailoring education programs to address

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
the specific needs of both inmates, while making the prisons C. Enhancement of Literacy Levels by Prison
environments better for female inmates. Suggestions also The table 7 below explores the relationship between the
included the need for evaluation of the curriculum to ensure respondents' prison of stay and whether their literacy levels
effective literacy enhancement. Most OICs and of cause have been enhanced after enrolling in formal education
inmates reported that they could not remember a time when programs, presented in percentages. This table examines
the government had conducted an evaluation of VTP whether respondents' literacy levels have been enhanced after
programs. Thus, Officers from both Kisumu and Kisii enrolling in formal education programs, based on the name of
reported that this was a key hinderance to improving the the prison they are staying in. Different prisons have different
formal education program. For example, Kisii prison percentages of respondents who reported their literacy levels
continues to lack any form of post-secondary education, and being enhanced.
additionally, the prison did not have a secondary level-formal
education. This is critical thus this study unravels areas for
policy improvement. This limits genuine empowerment of
female.

Table 7: Enhancement of Literacy Levels by Prison

2. What is the name of your prison of stay? * 20. If yes in 17 above, has your literacy levels been enhanced?
Cross-tabulation
Count
20. If yes in 17 above, has your Total
literacy levels been enhanced?
Yes N/A
Kisii Women 27 (32%) 57 (68%) 84 (100%)
Kisumu Women 35 (56%) 27 (44%) 62 (100%)
2. What is the name of your
Kisumu Maximum 15 (19%) 63 (81%) 78 (100%)
prison of stay?
Kisumu Medium 17 (28%) 44 (72%) 61 (100%)
Kisii Main 22 (26%) 62 (74%) 84 (100%)
Total 126 (34%) 243 (66%) 369 (100%)
Source: Omondi (2023).

The data reveals variations in the percentages of  Rating of Literacy as a Hindrance to Vocational
respondents who reported their literacy levels being enhanced Training by Gender
across different prisons. Some prisons, like "Kisumu The deepen understanding of the influence of literacy on
Women," have higher percentages of reported literacy VTP uptake, the study examined the relationship between
enhancement, while others, like "Kisumu Maximum," have respondents' gender and the extent to which their level of
lower percentages. Policy implications from this analysis literacy is a hindrance to their enrollment into and/or
could involve analyzing the effectiveness of education maximum gain from the vocational training program. The
programs in enhancing literacy levels in different prisons and data is presented in terms of counts and percentages through
making necessary adjustments to improve outcomes. simplified cross-tab technique.
Overall, the data on the enhancement of literacy levels after
enrolling in formal education programs provides insights into
the impact of education on inmates' literacy skills. The higher
percentage of females reporting enhanced literacy levels
suggests potential success in tailored educational
interventions. It also highlights the importance of evaluating
and refining educational programs to meet the unique needs
of male and female inmates. These findings underscore the
role of education in improving inmates' readiness for
vocational training programs and their successful
rehabilitation. In summary, analyzing the cross-tabulated data
for enhancement of literacy levels based on gender and prison
names offers insights into the effectiveness of formal
education programs in improving inmates' literacy skills.
These insights can inform policy decisions and program
adjustments to enhance the impact of education on inmates'
vocational training readiness, contributing to their successful
reintegration into society.

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Table 8: Rating of Literacy as a Hindrance to Vocational Training by Gender
Respondent Gender Rating of Literacy Hindrance Total
Male 1: 4 (1.68%) 238
2: 13 (5.46%)
3: 46 (19.33%)
4: 91 (38.16%)
5: 58 (24.37%)
N/A: 26 (10.92%)
Female 1: 0 (0.00%) 131
2: 6 (4.58%)
3: 14 (10.69%)
4: 16 (12.21%)
5: 80 (61.07%)
N/A: 15 (11.45%)
Total Total 1: 4 (1.08%) 369
Source: Omondi (2023).

The table 8 above captures respondents' ratings of how the market, and only serve as hands-men not real fundis
much their literacy levels hinder their participation in Kiswahili for a technician).
vocational training programs, based on their gender. Among
male respondents, 24.37% rated their hindrance as "5" (most The excerpt shows that literacy really matters for
likely), while among female respondents, 61.07% rated the [proper uptake of VT. Thus while the study finds that the two
same way. Additionally, some respondents did not provide a programs as viewed in practice as mutually exclusive, there
rating (evident in the "N/A" count). The data suggests that a is need for a cost-benefit analysis to reveal the real benefits
higher percentage of female respondents feel their literacy and costs for viewing them as the same sides of a single coin,
levels significantly hinder their participation in vocational with each program involving the other in terms of their
training programs, further corroborating earlier finding that implementation. For example. For maximum uptake, most
female offnders enter prisons with low literacy levels. This trainers showed that the VTP would come after acquiring
finding also indicates a potential need for targeted literacy formal literacy or advanced training, enabling graduates form
enhancement programs for female inmates but also men, to the formal education program have the ability to participate
ensure equal access and successful participation in vocational in the program.
training.
 Rating of Literacy as a Hindrance to Vocational
Interviews with trainers and OICs confirmed that Training by Prison
literacy is a key factor in enhancing the uptake of VTP. One This table explores the relationship between the
trainer shared a view held by most other trainers, arguing that: respondents' prison of stay and the extent to which their level
of literacy is a hindrance to their enrollment into and/or
VTP is not just practical. It also encompasses a theory maximum gain from the vocational training program,
bit. Inmate who cannot read and write cannot be properly presented in percentages.
rehabilitate with the program because they lack the basics to
even write down quotations. This makes them vulnerable to

Table 9: Rating of Literacy as a Hindrance to Vocational Training by Prison

Name of Prison Rating of Literacy Hindrance Total
Kisii Women 1: 0 (0.00%) 84
2: 0 (0.00%)
3: 8 (9.52%)
4: 12 (14.29%)
5: 56 (66.67%)
N/A: 8 (9.52%)
Kisumu Women 1: 0 (0.00%) 62
2: 16 (25.81%)
3: 6 (9.68%)
4: 9 (14.52%)
5: 23 (37.10%)

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Name of Prison Rating of Literacy Hindrance Total
N/A: 8 (12.90%)
Kisumu Maximum 1: 0 (0.00%) 78
2: 0 (0.00%)
3: 0 (0.00%)
4: 30 (38.46%)
5: 38 (48.72%)
N/A: 10 (12.82%)
Kisumu Medium 1: 0 (0.00%) 61
2: 0 (0.00%)
3: 9 (14.75%)
4: 38 (62.30%)
5: 6 (9.84%)
N/A: 8 (13.11%)
Kisii Main 1: 4 (5.00%) 76
2: 3 (3.75%)
3: 37 (46.25%)
4: 18 (22.50%)
5: 14 (17.50%)
N/A: 9 (11.25%)
Total Total 1: 4 (1.08%) 369
Source: Omondi (2023).

The table above analyzed respondents' ratings of how access to literacy-enhancing resources should be ensured for
much their literacy levels hinder their participation in inmates in all prisons.
vocational training programs, based on the prison they are
staying in. The data shows variations in the ratings across  Rating of influence of Literacy on Type of Training by
different prisons. The data suggests that inmates from Gender
different prisons have varying perceptions of how much their This table examines the relationship between
literacy levels hinder their participation in vocational training respondents' gender and the extent to which their literacy
programs. Policies should consider prison-specific levels have defined the type of vocational training program to
interventions to address literacy-related hindrances, enroll into. The data is presented in terms of counts and
particularly in prisons with higher percentages of inmates percentages.
reporting hindrance (e.g., "Kisumu Maximum"). Equitable

Table 10: Rating of influence of Literacy on Type of Training by Gender

Respondent Gender Rating of Type of Training Total
Male 1: 4 (1.68%) 238
2: 13 (5.46%)
3: 46 (19.33%)
4: 91 (38.16%)
5: 58 (24.37%)
N/A: 26 (10.92%)
Female 1: 0 (0.00%) 131
2: 6 (4.58%)
3: 14 (10.69%)
4: 16 (12.21%)
5: 79 (60.31%)
N/A: 15 (11.45%)
Total Total 1: 4 (1.08%) 369
Source: Omondi (2023).

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
This table 10 abovea captures respondents' ratings of inclusive participation and successful rehabilitation.
how much their literacy levels have defined the type of Secondly, female literacy levels should be enhanced to ensure
vocational training program they enroll into, based on their that they are able to enroll in not merely female-dominated
gender. Among female respondents, 60.31% rated their fields such as hands-made-based trades: embroidery, food
literacy as significantly defining the type of training, related courses etc.
compared to 24.37% of male respondents. Similar to previous
tables, some respondents did not provide a rating (evident in  Rating of influence of Literacy on Type of Training by
the "N/A" count). The data suggests that a higher percentage Prison
of female respondents believe their literacy levels This table 11 explores the relationship between the
significantly define the type of vocational training they can respondents' prison of stay and the extent to which their
enroll in. Policies should focus on offering a diverse range of literacy levels have defined the type of vocational training
vocational training programs that accommodate varying program to enroll into, presented in percentages.
literacy levels, particularly for female inmates, to ensure

Table 11: Rating of influence of Literacy on Type of Training by Prison

Name of Prison Rating of Type of Training Total
Kisii Women 1: 0 (0.00%) 84
2: 0 (0.00%)
3: 8 (9.52%)
4: 12 (14.29%)
5: 56 (66.67%)
N/A: 8 (9.52%)
Kisumu Women 1: 0 (0.00%) 62
2: 16 (25.81%)
3: 6 (9.68%)
4: 9 (14.52%)
5: 23 (37.10%)
N/A: 8 (12.90%)
Kisumu Maximum 1: 0 (0.00%) 78
2: 0 (0.00%)
3: 0 (0.00%)
4: 30 (38.46%)
5: 38 (48.72%)
N/A: 10 (12.82%)
Kisumu Medium 1: 0 (0.00%) 61
2: 0 (0.00%)
3: 9 (14.75%)
4: 38 (62.30%)
5: 6 (9.84%)
N/A: 8 (13.11%)
Kisii Main 1: 4 (5.00%) 76
2: 3 (3.75%)
3: 37 (46.25%)
4: 18 (22.50%)
5: 13 (16.25%)
N/A: 9 (11.25%)
Total Total 1: 4 (1.08%) 369
Source: Omondi (2023).

This table 12 analyzes respondents' ratings of how much different prisons. The data implies that the perception of how
their literacy levels have defined the type of vocational much literacy levels define the type of vocational training
training program they enroll into, based on the prison they are varies among inmates from different prisons. Policies should
staying in. The data shows variations in the ratings across consider prison-specific strategies to address the influence of

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
literacy on vocational training course choices. Ensuring a  Formal Literacy Education Priority by Gender
variety of training options and providing support for skill This table examines the relationship between
development could empower inmates to make informed respondents' gender and the extent to which they agree that
choices. their priority need is pursuing formal education as a precursor
for vocational training programs. The data is presented in
terms of counts and percentages.

Table 12: Rating of Formal Literacy Education Priority by Gender

Respondent Gender Agreement with Formal Education as Priority Total
Male Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 238
Disagree: 10 (4.20%)
Moderately Agree: 46 (19.33%)
Agree: 98 (41.18%)
Highly Agree: 58 (24.37%)
N/A: 26 (10.92%)
Female Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 131
Disagree: 0 (0.00%)
Moderately Agree: 0 (0.00%)
Agree: 36 (27.48%)
Highly Agree: 115 (87.79%)
N/A: 16 (12.21%)
Total Total Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 369
Source: Omondi (2023).

The table above reveals the respondents' agreement quality formal education programs within the prison system,
level with prioritizing formal education as a precursor for particularly for female inmates. This aligns with the inmates'
vocational training programs, based on their gender. A preferences and can enhance their participation and success
significant percentage of female respondents (87.79%) highly in vocational training programs.
agree with the priority of formal education, compared to
24.37% of male respondents. The data indicates that female  Formal Literacy Education Priority by Prison
inmates highly prioritize formal education as a precursor for This table explores the relationship between the
vocational training and agrees with previous findings already respondents' prison of stay and their agreement level with
presented that while literacy matter for all inmates to boost prioritizing formal education as a precursor for vocational
their rehabilitation through VTP, it does to females than training programs, presented in percentages.
males. Policies should focus on providing accessible and

Table 13: Rating of Formal Literacy Education Priority by Prison

Name of Prison Agreement with Formal Education Priority Total
Kisii Women Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 84
Disagree: 0 (0.00%)
Moderately Agree: 8 (9.52%)
Agree: 12 (14.29%)
Highly Agree: 56 (66.67%)
N/A: 8 (9.52%)
Kisumu Women Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 62
Disagree: 16 (25.81%)
Moderately Agree: 6 (9.68%)
Agree: 9 (14.52%)
Highly Agree: 23 (37.10%)
N/A: 8 (12.90%)
Kisumu Maximum Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 78
Disagree: 0 (0.00%)
Moderately Agree: 0 (0.00%)

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Name of Prison Agreement with Formal Education Priority Total
Agree: 30 (38.46%)
Highly Agree: 38 (48.72%)
N/A: 10 (12.82%)
Kisumu Medium Highly Disagree: 0 (0.00%) 61
Disagree: 0 (0.00%)
Moderately Agree: 9 (14.75%)
Agree: 38 (62.30%)
Highly Agree: 6 (9.84%)
N/A: 8 (13.11%)
Kisii Main Highly Disagree: 4 (5.00%) 76
Disagree: 3 (3.75%)
Moderately Agree: 37 (46.25%)
Agree: 18 (22.50%)
Highly Agree: 13 (16.25%)
N/A: 9 (11.25%)
Total Total Highly Disagree: 4 (1.08%) 369
Source: Omondi (2023).

Table 13 above analyzes respondents' agreement level with the fundamental tools necessary for their rehabilitation but
prioritizing formal education as a precursor for vocational also significantly influences their participation and success in
training programs, based on the prison they are staying in. vocational training. The study reinforces the
The data indicates variations in agreement levels across interconnectedness of education and vocational training as
different prisons. The data implies that inmates from different complementary components of the rehabilitation process,
prisons have varying degrees of agreement regarding the emphasizing the need for a coordinated and holistic approach
priority of formal education for vocational training. To ensure to prisoner reintegration. The study's findings carry
equitable access to educational opportunities and tailored significant policy implications, highlighting the importance
rehabilitation, policies should consider the unique of gender-sensitive education programs, equitable resource
perspectives of inmates from various prisons and provide distribution across prisons, and the continuous evaluation and
suitable programs accordingly. refinement of rehabilitation strategies. Ultimately, the study
underscores that improving inmates' literacy levels and
In conclusion, these findings shed light on the complex expanding access to education and vocational training are
interactions between gender, prison context, and literacy essential steps toward breaking the cycle of incarceration and
levels in relation to vocational training programs. The facilitating their successful reintegration into society.
interpretation and policy implications provide guidance for
developing inclusive and effective rehabilitation strategies ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
that prioritize literacy enhancement and vocational training,
while acknowledging the diverse needs and preferences of I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to all
inmates across different prisons and genders. individuals who contributed to this study. Mum JOYCE
OKIRIGITI, brothers , sisters and my supervisors, Dr. JANE
V. CONCLUSIONS LUSENAKA and Dr. CALVINCE BARRACK deserve
special thanks for their guidance, prompt responses to
In conclusion, this comprehensive study sheds light on queries, encouragement, advice, understanding and patience
the multifaceted dynamics of offenders' literacy levels, through-out the challenging period of proposal development
gender disparities, and their engagement with vocational and lastly, the Kenya prison administration for giving me
training programs in the correctional facilities of Kisumu and entry and possible assistance in doing this work.
Kisii Command Prisons. It is evident from the findings that
illiteracy is a pervasive issue among inmates, underscoring STUDY RECOMMENDATIONS
the urgent need for more robust and inclusive formal
education programs within prison walls. Furthermore, the A. For Future Studies
gender disparities in literacy levels demand immediate  Conduct in-depth qualitative research to explore the
attention, with female inmates facing greater challenges in specific barriers and challenges faced by female inmates
accessing education and vocational training. in accessing education and vocational training within the
prison system.
One of the key takeaways from this study is the pivotal  Investigate the long-term impact of enhanced literacy
role that formal education plays in inmates' rehabilitation and levels on inmates' post-release employment opportunities
their readiness for vocational training programs. It is clear and recidivism rates.
that enhancing literacy skills not only empowers inmates with

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Volume 8, Issue 9, September 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
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