Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians A study in the suppression of belief and the rise of Christianity Case Studies in Religion: Magic & Witchcraft Gary R. Varner Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Copyright © 2010 by Gary R. Varner This work may not be reproduced in any manner without the written consent of the publisher and copyright holder. ISBN: 978-0-557-39932-1 Visit the author’s website: www.authorsden.com/garyrvarner Cover illustration St. Paul at Ephesus by Gustave Doré An OakChylde Book Printed and published in the United States by Lulu Press, Inc. Raleigh, NC 2 Contents Introduction 4 Chapter One: The Treatment of Witches & Magic: The Control of Belief 9 Chapter Two: An Age of Intolerance 24 Chapter Three : Christian Magic 29 Chapter Four: The Use of Charms, Incantations & Curses 41 Chapter Five: Jesus the Magician 59 Chapter Six: Prayer as Magic 69 Chapter Seven: Paul and the Rise of Christianity 77 Chapter Eight: Witchcraft Laws 82 Conclusion 94 About the Author 97 Bibliography 98 Index 103 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Introduction “T he suppression of belief.” It was perhaps the most pivotal event in the world’s history that the age-old beliefs of shamanism, folkmagic and herbal lore were destroyed by a religion which would eventually dominate a large portion of the world and wield an incredible amount of power in the hands of politicians. Such an event was not, of course, a sudden thing. As this book will show, laws were enacted in ancient Babylon to control black witchcraft and magic. However, the same incantations and spells used by black witches were not only allowed, but encouraged when performed by healers. The three magi reportedly who brought gifts to the newborn Jesus were magicians—white witches who used their knowledge of the occult to cure and tell the future. Richard Kieckhefer wrote that these Zoroastrian priests, by definition, practiced “’the arts of the magi,’ or ‘the magical arts,’ or simply ‘magic…Because the magi were foreigners with exotic skills that aroused apprehension, the term ‘magic’ was a deeply emotional one, rich with dark connotations. Magic was something sinister, something threatening.” 1 1 Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990, 10. 4 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Obviously, the three magi were not treated as evil persons but as “wise men” and astrologers in search of a new king. When did the characterization of wise men and women change to followers of Satan and of evil in general? The word “magic” evolved from the Greek “magos” which referred to the priests and religious specialists of the Persians. These magi were responsible for rituals, sacrifices and dream interpretations, which were part of Persian religion and society. This change in perception began long before the birth of Jesus, at least by the 5th century BCE in Greece. In fact, the Greeks were the first who lumped the magi in with followers of the ecstatic cults such as the Bacchanals and followers of the many other secret mystery cults. The Persians and the Greeks had long been enemies and it is not outside logic to believe that it may have been a conscious effort of the Greeks to cast dispersions on the Persians and their religion. Such tactics have long been successful and still are in our present day. Fritz Graf noted “…for an Ionian of the end of the archaic era, the magos was put in the same category as the itinerant experts of private cults, men on the fringe of society, ridiculed by some, secretly feared by others…” 2 2 Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997, 21-22. 5 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians For untold thousands of years the cunning man and woman held important positions in their cultures, treating illnesses, foretelling the future and acting as intermediaries with the ordinary person and the gods, goddesses and spirits of the land. However, after the Greeks successfully cast doubt on the magi it was a natural development that all witches, folk healers and cunning men came to be known as part of society’s fringe, not to be trusted, but rather feared and avoided. Institutional magic, however, continued to thrive in the Ancient World. Rome and Greece and Babylon controlled the use of magic and what was permitted but it was not outlawed or driven underground. In fact, the early Christians accepted that pagans could foretell the future and heal the ill but only because the pagans had help from their gods. “But the gods of the pagans,” wrote Kieckhefer, “were no real gods; from a Christian viewpoint they were in fact demons. Thus the thaumaturgy of Greco-Roman paganism was unmasked as demonic magic.” 3 So while the magi were made into a secretive fringe group by the Greeks, all magicians, witches and folkhealers were made into demon worshippers by the Christians. Strangely enough, magic continued only slightly modified by the Christian church. Many of the incantations, prayers, and 3 Kieckhefer, op cit., 10. 6 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians rituals used by pagan religions continue to be used today by Christians around the world but thinly disguised as litany. The use of magical rites was believed to “aid the god, who was the principle of life, in his struggle with the opposing principle of death.” 4 According to Sir James Fraser, “They imagined that they could recruit his failing energies and even raise him from the dead. The ceremonies which they observed for this purpose were in substance a dramatic representation of the natural processes which they wished to facilitate; for it is a familiar tenet of magic that you can produce any desired effect by merely imitating it. …They set forth the fruitful union of the powers of fertility, the sad death of one at least of the divine partners, and his joyful resurrection. Thus a religious theory was blended with a magical practice. The combination is familiar in history. Indeed, few religions have ever succeeded in wholly extricating themselves from the old trammels of magic.” 5 This book is not to settle the question as to the reality of Jesus either as a man or as a God. Nothing was recorded about the man during his own time. However, this book will discuss some tantalizing hints that Jesus may have practiced magic himself and used his talents to promote himself as yet another savior. This book is about the practice 4 5 Fraser, Sir George. Adonis Attis Osiris. New Hyde Park: University Books, 4. Ibid. 7 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians of magic and how it was manipulated by dominant religions and power structures which existed and continues to exist and how such manipulation served to create Christianity and suppress paganism. This publication is the first in a series of monographs exploring various themes in early religion. Future monographs will focus on amulets and charms, spirits, holy wells and waters and the development of monotheism. Special thanks go to Ather Mirza, Director of Press & Publications in the press office of the University of Leicester for permission to reprint the photographs of the Leicester curse tablet in chapter four. 8 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter One The Treatment of Witches & Magic: The Control of Belief B ecause laws were established by Hammurabi, who ruled in ancient Babylon from 1848-1806 BCE, concerning witchcraft, we know that the witch has been in existence for thousands of years. Likewise, the practice of magic, either through accepted or prohibited means, stretches back to the beginnings of Humankind. It may be, as Clyde Kluckholm wrote, that witchcraft “may represent…the vestigal remains of a religious complex forming part of a generalized Paleolithic culture that was originally common to all human societies throughout the world.” 6 Hammurabi’s laws, however, were not as concerned with the punishments of witches or of witchcraft but rather with the requirements to prove a charge of witchcraft. Witchcraft was punished because of the material damages that could be inflicted but magic was allowed as it was used as a spiritual or benevolent means. Some of the earliest records of witches are contained in the Bible. There are numerous instances recorded in the Old 6 As quoted by Marc Simmons in Witchcraft in the Southwest: Spanish & Indian Supernaturalism on the Rio Grande. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1980, 5. 9 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Testament of wizards and others with “familiars and spirits” existing in the Holy Land and were constantly being “put away” by Hebrew leaders. In addition, one of the first documented book burnings occurred in response to Paul’s instilling the fear of Judaic law against the practice of witchcraft. Acts 19:18 and 19 reads: “And many that believed came, and confessed, and shewed their deeds. “Many of them also which used curious arts brought their books together, and burned them before all men: and they counted the price of them, and found it fifty thousand pieces of silver.” Even though witchcraft was legislated against in ancient Israel, it continued as an underground activity—much as it has throughout history. King Saul in the Old Testament book of Samuel 1:28 consulted the Witch of Endor out of desperation when the “oracle of Yahweh” remained silent to his pleas for a glimpse at the future. Seeking counsel with the dead Samuel, Saul ordered his servants to seek out “a woman that hath a familiar spirit” 7 so that she could summon Samuel’s spirit. Saul went out one night in disguise to see the witch. Knowing the laws, and knowing that the man was Saul, the 7 A “familiar spirit” in Biblical terms refers to the spirit of a dead person that is being used by a witch or medium to foretell the future. Using such a spirit or consulting a witch for these purposes was punishable by death in early Israel. 10 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians woman was somewhat suspicious, saying that she was aware he had “cut off those that have familiar spirits” as well as banning wizards and asked if Saul was attempting to entrap her so that her actions would “cause me to die”? Saul assured her, saying, “there shall no punishment happen to thee for this thing.” Needless to say, the dead Samuel appeared, telling Saul that he would soon lose his kingdom to the Philistines and that Saul and his sons would “to morrow” join those in the Land of the Dead. It is interesting to note that the ancient Israelis suffered death for consulting with wizards and witches but an official “oracle of Yahweh” was available to the Hebrews to consult. This inconsistency is addressed in Christian handbooks such as the New Compact Bible Dictionary that offers this explanation: “”’the oracles of God’ would include Christian teaching. Christians are told to speak as the oracles of God.” 8 An interesting statement since obviously in ancient Israel Christian teaching did not exist, nor, for that matter, Christians. While divination was apparently forbidden to the Hebrews, the ancient Roman Sibylline prophecies or books of oracles, inspired later Hebrews to create their own oracular 8 Bryant, T. Alton, ed. The New Compact Bible Dictionary. Grand Rapids: Zondervan Publishing House 1967, 425. 11 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians books for their own purposes. According to Klauck, “From the second century BCE onwards, Judaism took over this literary genre and produced Sibylline oracles, in order to promote the cause of monotheism, to attack the Roman empire, to articulate its own messianic hope, and in this way to express apocalyptic expectations too.” 9 Later Christians “reworked” these oracle books to declare the “oracle’s” foretelling of the destruction of Roman paganism. Ancient prohibitions against magic were primarily directed to the Jews. However, as Peters noted, such prohibitions “did not stop these practices, and Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Early Christians alike appear to have persisted in consulting magicians well into the fifth and sixth centuries A.D., and probably long after.” 10 The fear of witches living in ancient Babylon during the same time of the Old Testament probably caused the same sort of fear and uneasiness as they caused during the terrible Burning Times in Europe. In Babylon, witchcraft was an aspect of daily life, which was “officially disapproved of because of its harmful effects…although its techniques were probably not very different from those of acceptable white 9 Klauck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context of Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press 2003, 204. 10 Peters, Edward. The Magician, the Witch, and the Law. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1978, 3. 12 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians magic.” 11 The practice of “White Magic,” however, was a different matter. Thomsen noted a very profound difference between the concept of magic in ancient Babylon and among the later classical writers. The classical writer was more concerned with love potions, necromancy and the manipulation of demons while magical practices of the Babylonians “are instead prescriptions for communication with the divine. Their purpose is to purify a person in a real and figurative sense, to free him from sins and everything which may disturb his relations to the gods.” 12 One of the main differences perceived between the white witch and the black witch is one of a physical nature. Our perception, stemming from our childhood, is that a witch is old, ugly, with stringy grey hair and hunchbacked. Unfortunately, deformed people are often feared and rejected by mainstream society and are often shunned by those who believe that their deformity was caused by evil forces. The same occurred in Babylon. Archaeologist E. A. Wallis Budge wrote that the Babylonian witches “were usually men and woman who were deformed, or who possessed some physical peculiarity which led their neighbors to believe that they 11 Black, Jeremy and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of Texas Press 1992, 186. 12 Thomsen, Marie-Louise. “Witchcraft and Magic in Ancient Mesopotamia” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies.Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2001, 93. 13 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians were closely associated with devils, and that they sometimes served as dwelling places for the powers of evil.” 13 These people were regarded as “more baneful than the devils themselves” because they contained human intelligence inside their deformed bodies. Even Horace referred to witches as “weird and grotesque” as well as ineffectual in the end.14 It is interesting to note, however, that these practitioners of evil magic utilized the same powers and rituals as the priests who practiced White Magic. “The incantation,” Budge continues, “which in the mouth of a priest made a sick man well, in the mouth of the witch procured his death.” 15 Women have also been singled out as practitioners of black magic. While men occasionally were acknowledged, and punished for crimes of witchcraft, it was the woman who most always incurred the wrath of law and who were considered “naturally evil” due to their “lustful ways.” Perhaps the link between women and witchcraft can be attributed to Aristotle, who pronounced the female “a deformity in nature” due to the many folktales of the time telling of monstrous births by women. One tale in particular 13 Budge, E.A. Wallis. Babylon Life and History. New York: Barnes & Noble Books 2005, 117. 14 Luck, George. “Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. Philadelphia: University on Pennsylvania Press 1999, 123. 15 Ibid., 118. 14 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians was of “the prodigious laying of a clutch of eggs by a human mother.”16 It is this distinction, a distinction of physical appearance, labels of “deformity” and material means that have been used throughout history to accuse, convict and then to burn witches for their evil acts. This distinction will appear again and again in this study. It seems that practitioners of white magic walked a very fine line, for one complaint or accusation could immediately cause one to be labeled a witch of the black arts and subject to punishment or death. This has been true throughout time and through all forms of society. White and black witchcraft was treated differently under Roman law. White witchcraft was not a crime but was tolerated since it was used mostly for beneficent causes such as healing and divination. Black magic was always harmful and was prosecuted as a crime. In ancient Babylon, magic was commonly practiced, usually as a protective measure. Enki, god of magic, was consulted to obtain instructions in the performance of magical-medical rituals. Incantations, rituals and other forms of magic and sorcery were used to combat black witchcraft and the evil eye. The penalties for witchcraft have dramatically changed over time. During the 7th century, the Archbishop of 16 Warner, Marina. Fantastic Metamorphoses, Other Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002, 109. 15 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Canterbury, Theodore, established a set of laws called the Lieber Poetentialis, which imposed one year penance for women (note the laws only pertained to women) who used astrology or five years penance for raised storms; one to ten years penance for resorting to demons; seven years for the crime of killing another by use of spells (three of those seven years the person could only consume bread and water); and excommunication for anyone practicing as a magician. The death penalty was never applied in these cases. 17 It would appear that persons who practiced some form of witchcraft during the early years of Christianity when pagan traditions were still commonly observed were not as feared as those wise women, cunning men and witches living in later “Christian” times. While these times were “Christian,” they were times when fear reigned and punishment was cruel and deadly. Severe punishment of witches in other times and cultures has also been documented. In Apache society witches were more often than not killed, either by being shot or burned to death. Anthropologist Morris Edward Opler who worked with the Chiricahua Apache at the turn of the 20th century recorded the following from an Apache informant: “In olden times when suspected persons came before the council because they were acting peculiarly, and extreme 17 Alexander, Marc. A Companion to the Folklore & Customs of Britain. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing Ltd. 2002, 322. 16 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians measures were taken, like hanging them up by the wrists and putting wood under as though to light it, they would sometimes admit that they were witches. This was often done. I have seen it. If a person confessed, they burned him. Even if he promises to remove the evil influence, he is burned. When they have burned they have no more evil influence. Sometimes they were shot though—any way to get rid of them.” 18 In some Native American traditions, once a person has been “witched” it cannot be undone. According to a Comanche Medicine woman by the name of Sanapia, “one of the particularly horrible things about witchcraft is that it cannot be stopped once it is set in motion.”19 Such accusations were serious and often involved the whole tribe. “When something wrong which affects the whole group occurs,” Opler reports, “the leader calls in the people involved, or the important men, or even all the people. For witchcraft, a council of this sort would be held. The case would be presented, and the influential men would decide the punishment. A man can’t accuse another of witchcraft before the council unless he is absolutely sure of it.” 20 18 Opler, Morris Edward. An Apache Life-Way: The Economic, Social, and Religious Institutions of the Chiracahua Indians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1941, 252. 19 Jones, David E. Sanapia: Comanche Medicine Woman. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology 1972, 94 20 Ibid. 17 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Of course, the individual is forced to confess and is soon set afire. The informant stated, however, “witches do not burn up quickly, they keep on living a long time.” 21 As previously mentioned, many of the ancient civilizations viewed magic in both a good and bad context. The “good” form was any spell or charm worked for the benefit of the society as a whole. “Bad” magic consisted of spells and charms used for ill, such as in the theft of a neighbor’s crop or in the interruption of civic trade and social intercourse. While evil sorcerers and black witches were commonly punished as social pariahs—punishment even including death, it was not until the fourteenth-century that witch trials became wide-spread in Europe and not until the fifteenth-century that the trials became fearsome rituals of cruelty, false accusation, and persecution. This is a tenet of Christianity as well—evil exists but man has the choice to embrace it or reject it. Moon tells us that the Navaho hero figure First Man, when accused of being evil replies “It is true, my children, I am filled with evil. But I know when to use it and when to withhold it.” 22 The God of the Judeo-Christians admits to the same. In Isaiah 45:7 God states “I form the light, and create darkness: I make peace, and create evil: I the Lord do all these things.” While many evangelical Christians prefer not to recognize 21 22 Ibid. Ibid. 18 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians this claim it is, like First Man’s, evidence that in religious traditions evil is part of the dual nature of the universe. Good and evil co-exit and it is up to the individual to act within their boundaries. It is this dual nature that witchcraft and shamans utilize. “…’evil,’” Moon relates, “is as intrinsic in the upward progression as any other element.” 23 As Christianity gained influence in the world, it also became part of magical systems. Seen repeatedly, Christian influences are prevalent in both Old and New World shamanism and witchcraft. More than likely it was the ritual of Catholicism that influenced the indigenous witch and shaman to incorporate parts of Christianity into their religiomagic practices. In addition, it may have been Christian attitudes and perceptions that caused indigenous cultures to view magic and witchcraft in a similar manner. “Much healing was conducted with the aid of Catholic prayers,” wrote Greenwood and Airey. “Prescriptions of Paternosters, Aves and the Creed in honour of the Holy Ghost and the Virgin Mary were common [practices of the cunning folk.]” 24 Jones recorded as well that the Comanche medicine woman Sanapia “continually prods the patient to have faith in her powers and the powers of the sun, earth, 23 Moon, Shiela. A Magic Dwells: A Poetic and Psychological Study of the Navajo Emergence Myth. San Francisco: Guild for Psychological Studies Publishing House 1970,.52. 24 Greenwood, Susan and Raje Airey. The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Witchcraft & Practical Magic. London: Hermes House 2006, 104. 19 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians God, peyote, Jesus, Medicine eagle, and the Holy Ghost.” 25 Obviously, these rituals incorporate a mixture of traditionalindigenous ritual and Christianity, the shaman does not want to offend or ignore any powerful deity in her attempt to achieve success. The use of Christian themes in magic and witchcraft is not unusual, nor confined to Native American witchcraft. Kieckhefer noted, “Secular magic blends at times into religious observance. Things that are holy in Christian cult can substitute for magical objects, and things that are inherently powerful can have their power enhanced through sacred names or rituals.” 26 However, this practice was not viewed as acceptable by Church leaders. Friar Henry Parker, writing during the reign of Edward IV, complained as follows: “They that use holy wordes of the gospel, Pater noster, Ave, or Crede, or holy prayers in theyr wytchecraftes, for charmes or conjurations—they make a fall hye sacrifice to the fende. It hath oft been knowen, that wytches with sayenge of their Pater noster and droppyng of the holy candell in a man’s steppes that they hated, hath done his fete rotten of DI. …But for the wytche worshyppeth the fende so highly with the holy prayers, and with the holy candell, 25 Jones, David E. Sanapia: Comanche Medicine Woman. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology 1972, 82. 26 Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989, 108. 20 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians and used suche holy thinges in despyte of God therefore is the fende redy to do the wytche’s wylle and to fulfill thinges that they done it for.” 27 A contrary opinion was offered by a Mr. Daniel Rock who wrote in the March 2, 1850 edition of Notes and Queries that the spell, using Christian instruments and words, was done “not only to drive away witchcraft, but guard all the folks in that house from sickness of every kind.” 28 Obviously, it was the appearance of witchcraft rather than the actual intent of the magic that caused terror in the heart of the Church. In many areas of the world, even today “medicine men” or women have an active role in their society in treating illnesses and identifying possible supernatural causes for illness. In Mexico and Spain, the “curandero” is both healer and black magician. According to researcher Joe S. Graham, “it is often difficult to distinguish between a brujo (‘sorcerer’) and a curandero, because like the brujo, the curandero sometimes uses black magic to cause injury.”29 The use of “holy water” to expel devils, the use of crossing oneself to avoid evil events, and the consecration of church 27 Parker, Henry. Compendiouse Treatyse, or Dialogue of Dives and Pauper. London: T. Berthelet 1536, XXXV. 28 Rock, Daniel. “The Fraternity of Christian Doctrine—Chaucer’s Night Charm” in Notes and Queries, Vol 1 (18) March 2, 1850, 281. 29 Graham, Joe S. “The Role of the Curandero in the Mexican American Folk Medicine in West Texas” in American Folk Medicine: A Symposium. Berkeley: University of California Press 1976, 180. 21 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians bells to make them effective against evil spirits and storms are all examples of magic that, if used by non-Christian people would be considered “witchcraft.” During the Middle Ages the Church, according to Keith Thomas, “acted as a repository of supernatural power which could be dispensed to the faithful to help them in their daily problems.” 30 A similar mixture of pagan and Christian symbols occurs within the Louisiana faith healer community. “Religion and magic,” wrote Lacoucière, “mingle freely in the charms. Hand in hand go prayers, Christological symbols, anointing and laying on of the hands, the presence of Christ, the Virgin Mary, and saints, together with cabalistic numbers and colors, the magic of alliteration, and circles.” 31 Incantations are also commonly used. The relatively quick assimilation of Christian symbols in witchcraft and shamanism attest to the theory that they are viewed as valuable tools in both traditions. The continuation of these practices is evident in a recent news story about Romanian judge Elena Simionescu. As president of the court of Vatra Dornel, a small town in eastern Romania, the judge was removed from her post with her salary reduced by 15% for three months after other 30 Thomas, Keith. Religion and the Decline of Magic. London: Penguin Books 1971, 35. 31 Lacourcière, Luc. “A Survey of Folk Medicine in French Canada from Early Times to the Present” in American Folk Medicine A Symposium. Berkeley: University of California Press 1976, 222. 22 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians judges, prosecutors, and court staff accused her of performing rituals and “casting spells.” While the judge did not deny she splashed water, mud and “other liquids” on the desks of fellow judges, as well as throwing salt and pepper about, she said in her defense, “I splash my colleagues’ desks with holy water every day, in the spirit of Christians’ rituals.” 32 It is likely that the judge does believe that she is a “good Christian” due to the common mixture of ancient pagan practices and the practice of Christianity to absorb these old rituals into Christian liturgy. 32 Pancevski, Bojan. “Romanian Judge demoted for witchcraft” in Sunday Telegraph, February 19, 2007. 23 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Two An Age of Intolerance T he early years of Christianity were filled with hostility, suspicion and intolerance. Much of this can be attributed to the Jewish worship of Yahweh the admitted “jealous God.” If we accept the Biblical accounts of the Jews, we find that many acts of slaughter, slavery, the destruction of entire cities and genocide were conducted in the name of Yahweh. “To the extent that the [Christian] religion has insisted over the centuries,” wrote David Leeming, “that its way is the only way and/or that its myths are literally true, it has developed a militancy and a tendency toward fundamentalism that have often placed it at odds with the actual teachings of its de facto founder by instigating or supporting violence, abuse, and repression.” 33 The early Christians not only attacked paganism as a belief system but all aspects of pagan thought, “principally its learned culture, and often denunciation of pagan literature and philosophy and even identifying them with 33 Leeming, David. Jealous Gods Chosen People: The Mythology of the Middle East. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2004, 89. 24 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians magic, thus further insulting the pagans who themselves never identified the two.” 34 Early fundamental Christian thought equated ignorance with learning, books with witchcraft, and followers of other faiths as idol worshippers. Much of these attitudes and biases continue to this day. Examples of early Christian intolerance include the murder of pagan scientist/philosopher Hypatia by Christian monks in the fifth century (415 CE) which effectively stopped scholarly inquiry in Egypt at that time. St. Cyril, patriarch of Alexandria, justified Hypatia’s murder “because she was an iniquitous female who had commandments, to teach men.” presumed, against God’s 35 Other examples include the destruction of a Jewish synagogue in 388 and the magnificent library at Alexandria in 391 CE, again by Christian mobs. Untold thousands of books of ancient knowledge, perhaps as many as 700,000, were lost in the fires that gutted the library. Education came to an end to all who were not Christian clergy. Books other than books of devotion were burned, it was illegal for non clergy to even read the Bible. The intentional destruction of libraries, schools and books “set humanity back as much as two millennia in its scientific understanding,” according to 34 Peters, Edward. The Magician, the Witch, and the Law. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1978, 4. 35 Ellerbe, Helen. The Dark Side of Christian History. Orlando: Morningstar and Lark 1995, 8. 25 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Helen Ellerbe. 36 Due to the Church’s successful attacks on education, books and free thought the Dark Ages were inevitable. “The Christian condemnation of magic,” wrote Peters, “the association of magicians with the figure of Antichrist, the fear of heresy, and the borrowing of traditional forms of Roman invective to condemn both magicians and heretics constituted the foundation of the Christian attitude toward both magic and heresy.” 37 Thus Christianity used fear tactics to control the practice of magic and to squash paganism and dissent. Pagans were not the only enemy of the Christians. Jews were often associated with the Anti-Christ and accused of the widespread practice of magic. This had been an ongoing charge of the Romans, which the Christians undertook as their own. Sorcerers during this time, and into the Middle Ages, favored the use of Hebrew in their spells which implicated the Jews as sorcerers as well. “The charge of sorcery,” wrote Peters, “by the fourth century fixed in association with that of diabolism, increased Christian hatred and fear of the Jew, and the association of Jews with sorcery enhanced the diabolic attributes of all magic…. 36 37 Ibid., 44. Peters, op cit., 12. 26 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians [which] aided in the general condemnation of magic by associating it with an especially hated people.” 38 As previously noted, the Jew did, in fact, delve in magic. According to Klauck, “Judaism made its own contribution to magic in the classical period. It was far from being utterly immune to the adoption of magical practices, and even without any activity on the part of Jews, the Hebrew and Aramaic divine names were widely employed among nonJews as a well-tried magical instrument.” 39 38 Ibid., 13. Klauck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context of Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press 2003, 213. 39 27 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians P. Apian Astronomicum Caesareum 1540 28 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Three Christian Magic A s indicated earlier, the use of magic is not confined to pagan religions, Satanists or New Age followers. Magic has been an accepted part of traditional Christianity since the Christian religion began. However, it is a matter of perspective with Christians viewing the use of magic and spells as works of the Devil rather than as an acceptable religious act, and so the magic and spells used are classified and defined as liturgy and acts of God. “During the first few centuries of our era,” noted George Luck, “Christians were not expressly forbidden to practice magic.” 40 Beneficial magic, indeed, was allowed to exist, “but in theory the Church assumed that all magic drew upon the help of demons whether the magician intended it or not.” 41 During and after the fifth century the Church did take a more active role to condemn the use of magic and St. Augustine argued that magic could only be performed with the help of demons. In fact, much of the Christian liturgy was used in early “medical” handbooks to cure illness. One 40 Luck, George. “Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1999, 158. 41 Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1972, 13. 29 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians such handbook, the Wolfsthurn book, “recommends not only Christian prayers but also apparently meaningless combinations of words or letters for their medical value. At one point it says to copy out the letters ‘P.N.B.C.P.X.A.O.P.I.L,’ followed by the Latin for ‘in the name of the Father, and the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.’ For demonic possession, the book recommends that a priest should speak into the afflicted person’s ear the following jumble of Latin, garbled Greek, and gibberish: ‘Amara Tonta Tyra post hos firabis ficaliri Elypolis starras polyque lique linarras buccabor uel barton vel Titram celi massis Metumbor o priczoni Jordan Ciriacus Valenntinus.’”42 Another handbook called the Munich manual was written in Latin by someone who was probably a member of the Catholic clergy. The book gives instructions on summoning demons with magic circles, commanding spirits and forcing them to return to their hellish homes once they were no longer required. Kiechhefer reports that the author advises his readers that they will need wax images of people that they wish to afflict along with rings, swords and other ritual items. He also requires, for some spells, a sacrifice be made 42 Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989, 4. 30 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians to the evil spirits and the use of burning herbs to act as magical incense. 43 As Keith Thomas notes, the Church was rather possessive of those things it considered “legitimate” magic: “So long as theologians permitted the use of, say, holy water or consecrated bells in order to dispel storms, there was nothing ‘superstitious’ about such activity; the Church…had no compunction about licensing its own brand of magical remedies.” 44 Today many of these “magical remedies” have survived in the form of prayer, incantation, holy water, sacred incense, bells, rituals and holy books. “While ordinary parish priests may have dabbled in medicine,” writes Kieckhefer, “they were more likely to practice other forms of magic.” 45 During the fifth and sixth centuries Christian holy men were said to make predictions of the future on demand—a practice the Church condemned if done by others as demonic. In fact, MacMullen tells us, St. Augustine “had relied on this…means of learning divine wishes, in fully pagan fashion.” 46 Evidently while this act of magic was 43 Thomas, Keith. Religion and the Decline of Magic. London: Penguin Books 1973, 303. 44 Kieckhefer, op cit., 58. 45 Ibid. 46 MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eight Centuries. New Haven: Yale University Press 1997, 139. 31 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians condemned by the Catholic Bishops, they also commonly used it. One form of magic that the priests were called upon to use was done to ensure the fertility of fields. Taking a whole day, the priest, before sunrise, would dig four clumps of soil from each of the four sides of the affected field. He would then sprinkle a mixture of holy water, oil, milk and honey on the clumps of earth along with herbs and fragments of trees. He would then recite, in Latin, “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the earth.” Prayers would then be said. After the prayers, the four clumps of earth were taken back to the parish church where four masses were sung over them. Before the sun set the clumps were moved back to where they had been taken. The dirt clumps were spread over the field and the fertile power given to them would, hopefully, result in a good crop.47 The difference between pagan spell-craft and magic and that employed by the Christian Church is simply a matter of terminology. Christian magic is referred to as “ritual power” and acceptable while perhaps identical rituals by other peoples are “witchcraft” and “sorcery.” Ancient Christian spells that have been documented include, among others, such things as healing spells using the Gospel of Matthew, spells invoking Christ for protection against illnesses and demons, protective spells that invoke 47 Ibid. 32 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians the sun, spells for healthy childbirth, erotic attraction spells, spells to make a woman pregnant, spells for men to attract a male lover, curses to make a man impotent, spells to obtain a good singing voice, spells to silence a dog, and spells using voodoo dolls. All of these have long been associated with witchcraft; however, they are all Christian spells dating from the first to the 12th century CE. 48 The Church’s implements of worship were viewed as powerful amulets. “Wax blessed on the feast of the Purification,” notes Kieckhefer, “was thought effective against thunderbolts. Ringing of church bells could safeguard the parish from storms. …Long sheets of parchment or paper, inscribed with prayers and then rolled up, could protect their bearers against sudden death, wounding by weapons, the slander of false witnesses, evil spirits, tribulations, illness, danger in childbirth, and other afflictions.” 49 Spells were commonly engraved on Christian amulets in much the same manner as pagan—in fact, many times there can be no discernable difference between them. This continues today with prayers, saints and the outline of fish depicted on charms and other forms of jewelry. In fact, the fish symbol is certainly pagan in origin and continues to be popular among Christians today. 48 Meyer, Marvin W. and Richard Smith, ed. Ancient Christian Magic. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1994. 49 Keickhefer, op cit., 78. 33 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians The dual nature of charms and amulets, being accepted and assimilated in a mixed indigenous-Christian culture is most observable in Mexico and South America. “Having difficulty accepting the submissive figure of Christ on the cross as a powerful force” wrote Sheila Paine, “the local Indians have taken a panoply of minor Christian saints as talismanic and mixed their portraits with horse-shoes, anteater hair, white clay, red beans, exotic gold elephants and shampoo.” 50 Such an eclectic mixture is representative of the coexistence of natural magic and religious protection. The spells used by Coptic Christians, according to David Frankfurter, “demonstrate that the lines between ‘magic,’ medicine, and religion that are customarily assumed in modern conversation simply did not exist” 51 to the practitioners during that time. For the Christian magician and his client it was important to incorporate as much of the official Church liturgy as possible “by ritually appealing to powers that are acknowledged and venerated by the temple or the church, often doing language…” 50 so with the very gestures, articles, and 52 Paine, Sheila. Amulets: Sacred Charms of Power and Protection. Rochester: Inner Traditions 2004, 72. 51 Frankfurter, David. “Healing Spells” in Ancient Christian Magic. Princeton: Princeton University Press 1994, 79. 52 Ibid., 80. 34 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians The use of magic and spells in Christianity increased during the Renaissance when “magic was used as a means to bring higher angelic forces down to the ordinary world.” 53 During the twelfth and thirteenth centuries a variety of magical texts were produced. One for the most significant of these is the Ars Notoria, or Notary Art which was compiled in the 12th century. Claiming to be a “Holy Art” based on a holy sacrament given by God to Solomon, it offers prayers and rituals which would impart increased memory and understanding as well as scholastic knowledge. The book also promised the practitioner that he would receive “angelic revelations.” Obviously, the book became popular with students. Another magical book called the Liber iuratus, or “Sworn Book, was compiled during the early fourteenth century and was presented “as a defence of magic compiled in response to the persecutions of magicians by high potentates in the Church.” 54 According to Page, “its rituals largely conform to a Christian framework with some Jewish borrowings, and the intermediaries from whom the practitioner seeks his goals 53 Greenwood, Susan. The Encyclopedia of Magic & Witchcraft. London: Hermes House 2005, 28. 54 Page, Sophie. Magic in Medieval Manuscripts. London: The British Library 2004, 44. 35 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians are the Holy Trinity and the Virgin Mary as well as various angels, spirits and demons.” 55 The use of these magical texts was not without risk. Bartholomew Iscannus, Bishop of Exeter established various penances in the 12th century. Magic acts used to gain love received a two-year penance if unsuccessful but five years if successful. Incantations used to steal milk or honey received three years, to change the weather or cause mental confusion in men five years, the performance of magic to cause impotence received five years but using charms to heal a sick child only received a 40 day penance. Most of these magical texts were used by a variety of clerics to either gain spiritual knowledge or material gain. Magic has always been an integral part of Christianity and continues today in Catholicism. Protestant sects, however, have always rallied against magic and this attitude is one of the basic tenets of the Protestant faith, which resulted in the Reformation and the attempted destruction of Catholicism. Under Protestant rule during the Reformation, Christians were forbidden to undertake such “magical” practices as “…casting holy water upon his bed…bearing about him holy bread, or St. John’s Gospel…ringing of holy bells; or blessing with the holy candle, to the intent thereby to be discharged of the burden of sin, or to drive away 55 Ibid., 45. 36 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians dreams and fantasies; or…putting trust and confidence of health and salvation in the same ceremonies.” 56 Witches brewing a hailstorm, from De Ianijs et phitonicis mulierbus by Ulrich Molitor, 1489 It is ironic that Protestants viewed the Catholic Church as Satanic when the Catholic Church was responsible for the witch trials in the first place. A 16th century woodcut of a Protestant caricature of Pope Alexander VI shows him as a 56 Ibid., 80. 37 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians demon. It is interesting to note, however, that the Catholic nations had a much less intense witch-hunt than Protestant nations. Some scholars have suggested that beliefs in witchcraft and the resulting slaughter was due to the Reformation and the religious struggle that it caused. Pope Alexander VI depicted as a demon by the Protestants. Spells were, as indicated previously, used everyday by ordinary people. James reminds us that mothers in ancient Egypt would use incantations when they put their children to bed to “invoke divine 38 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians aid against malign influences which they believed were on the alert to perform their nefarious deeds.” 57 Like the early Greeks and Romans, the early Christians also tolerated, if not embraced, neutral or beneficial magic. The difficulty, as Kieckhefer relates, “was in telling whether a particular practice did or did not involve appeal to demons.”58 Demonic magic was never tolerated in Christian or any other society. “One of the most common tests,” Kieckhefer continues, “was whether [a particular practice]…contained unintelligible words that might in fact be names for demons.” 59 While charms and spell-craft were considered “heathen” practices (“heathen” a term applied to those living in uncultivated, wild and forested lands—in other words, “peasants”) it was not entirely so. James Scott, the Duke of Monmouth, illegitimate son of King Charles II and pretender to the British throne, was arrested in the early 1680’s and banished from the country. On his arrest, a “pocket-book” of handwritten “spells, receipts, and prayers” charms, 60 and conjurations, songs, was recovered. 57 James, E.O. The Ancient Gods: The History and Diffusion of Religion in the Ancient Near East and the Eastern Mediterranean. Edison: Castle Books, 240. 58 Kieckhefer, op cit., 37. 59 Ibid. 60 Madden Sir F. “The Duke of Monmouth’s Pocket-books” in Notes and Queries, Vol. IV, No. 88, Saturday, July 5, 1851, 2. 39 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Among the items contained in the book were “magical receipts and charms in French, written partly in abbreviated form, accompanied by cabalistic figures. Two of these are to deliver a person out of prison…” 61 The book also contained incantations to turn gray hair black, protection against violent death and deliverance from “pains.” Christians commonly used amulets of other cultures. According to Venetia Newall, “Because of their reputation, Jewish amulets Chrysostom 62 were greatly prized. The fanatical accused the Jews of proselytizing by offering charms and certainly numbers of medieval amulets with Hebrew inscriptions were prepared specifically for use by Christians, perhaps because the unintelligible script lent them an aura of the supernatural.” 61 63 Ibid. St. John Chrysostom, or “Golden Mouth,” was the Bishp of Constantinople during the late fourth to early fifth century. He was well known for his destruction of pagan symbols and temples as well as an early proponent of anti-Semitism. 63 Newall, Venetia. “The Jew as a Witch Figure” in The Witch in History. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. 1996, 109. 62 40 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Four The Use of Charms, Incantations & Curses O ne typical form of ancient charms and amulets, tools used to affect a curse, are the small human form figures commonly referred to today as voodoo dolls. Originally known as kolossi in Greek, they are not nearly as common as lead tablets but they are far older. Made of lead, wax, bronze, clay, mud, and dough, these dolls have been dated to the 10th century BCE, the oldest curse tablet yet found has been dated to the 5th century BCE. Actual voodoo dolls have been found from the Imperial Roman era in a riverbed and a sewer. Voodoo dolls were used for “binding” magic. Ogden describes many of the dolls from ancient Greece and Rome: “1) the doll’s arms or legs are twisted behind its back as if bound; 2) the doll is transfixed with nails; 3) the head or feet or upper torso of the doll has been twisted back to front; 4) the doll is tightly shut in a container; 5) the doll has been inscribed with a victim’s name; and 41 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians 6) the doll has been discovered in a grave, sanctuary or in (what was) water.” 64 In antiquity, acts of magic, including spell-craft through incantation, were not considered as any form of opposition to the established religion. Ancient Rome’s law code, called the Twelve Tables, only prohibits evil incantations—not beneficial spell-craft. Scholar Marie-Louis Thomsen wrote, “They were not regarded as superstitious or forbidden, or laughed at. The rituals called ‘magical’ were the ordinary way of dealing with illness and misfortune and whatever disturbed the relations between man and god. In the eyes of the Mesopotamians they represented an old and divine knowledge and their performers were learned men with a high social status.” 65 Magic was a primary agent to combat illness. “Pliny the Elder,” wrote Hans-Josef Klauck, “inserts a small dissertation on magic into a book dealing with medicines; we learn here that Theophrastus knew a magic spell against sciatica, Cato a spell against dislocation of the limbs, and Varro a spell against gout in the feet…” 64 66 Ogden, Daniel. “Binding Spells: Curse Tablets and Voodoo Dolls in the Greek and Roman Worlds,” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1999, 3. 65 Thomsen, Marie-Louise. “Witchcraft and Magic in Ancient Mesopotamia” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2001, 14. 66 Klauck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context of Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press 2003, 211. 42 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians A sorcerer may yield tremendous power by using his or her ability to make others ill to the point of death. Such ability may be used intentionally or unintentionally but will result in the same end. Anthropologist Beatrice Blyth Whiting, who studied Paiute sorcery, noted in her 1950 study, “When a sorcerer is angry, he may unintentionally kill someone in one of the following ways: he may think bad thoughts about the individual without being aware of his thoughts; in a fit of temper he may express aggressive wishes about an individual without the intention of injuring him; or he may dream bad dreams about an individual. In the latter case, the victim may have dreams in which the sorcerer’s power appears.”67 Many individuals appear to have been accused of witchcraft due to personality defects more than anything else. One example recorded by Whiting was in the case of a man named Tom who lived near Fort Bidwell in Oregon in the 1930s. Tom was regarded as “mean”; he supposedly beat his children for little reason, was said to be “aggressive in competitive games and was domineering and threatening in his relationship with other tribal members. Naturally, he was accused of witchcraft because of his lack of control and disregard for societal norms. 68 67 Whiting, Beatrice Blyth. Paiute Sorcery: Viking Fund Publications in Anthropology Number Fifteen. New York: The Viking Fund 1950, 56. 68 Ibid. 61. 43 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Anyone who exhibited similar characteristics during the Middle Ages was also regarded as a witch or sorcerer. Such charges were a way to enforce cultural norms in behavior and group cooperation. There are, of course, instances where people have and do desire to create harm and use many of the typical methods of witchcraft to achieve their goal—through spell-craft. Perhaps one of the oldest forms of spell-craft using incantations is that of “metrical charms”—simple rhymes that have carried over into contemporary cultures as nursery rhymes. The power of language, of particular words and sounds, has long been valued by cultures which have not invested their entire experience in obtaining knowledge through the written word. While I cannot think of a world without books, it is, sad to say, the written language which has robbed modern man of his ability to utilize his mind as once was done. Caesar reported that the Druids underwent 20 years of intense education. A huge number of verses and oral history had to be mastered before an initiate could pass the Druidic training. None of the required training could be committed to writing. Likewise Australian aborigine societies continue to educate their young in a similar fashion, as did Native Americans at one time. 44 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Incantations by verse were perhaps the first form of spellcraft. Spence reports one such spell used to bind an individual to a particular task. Called the “nine fulfillments of the fairy woman” it ran as follows: To lay thee under spells and crosses under (pain of being struck by) the nine cow-fetters of the wildly roaming, traveler-deluding fairy woman, So that some sorry little wight more feeble and misguided than myself Take thy head, thine ear and thy life’s career from thee. 69 Another example of a spell called a fath-fifth or fith-fath which supposedly causes invisibility is, according to Spense: A magic cloud I put on thee, From dog, from cat, From cow, from horse, From man, from woman, From young man, from maiden, And from little child. Till I again return. 70 The term fith-fath, pronounced “fee-fa” survived in our nursery rhymes as the giant’s chant “fee-fo-fum” in Jack and the Beanstalk. Another example of an incantation is found in Shakespeare’s Macbeth: 69 Spence, Lewis. The Magic Arts in Celtic Britain. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc.1999, 62. 70 Ibid., 60. 45 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians “Double double, toil and trouble…” Other rhyming incantations were said to be used to transform a witch into an animal, in this example it was used to shape-shift into a hare: I shall go into a hare, With sorrow and sigh and mickle care; And I shall go in the Devil’s name Ay while I come home again. As previously noted, the Roman Twelve Tables only prohibited spells used to harm others, not those used for the good of society. Fritz Graf, professor of classics at Princeton University, sums up the intent of the Twelve Tables: “The Romans evidently believed in the powerful efficacy of certain vocal rites, the carmina, one could incantare or excantare. But we do not know whether the negative value of these terms is peculiar to them or whether it comes from the context…The same law of the Twelve Tables also uses Carmen in the neutral sense of verbal composition, according to Cicero: ‘If any person had sung or composed against another person a song such as was causing slander or insult to another…’ As defamatory songs, these carmina also have a destructive force…” 71 71 Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997, 42. 46 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians The use of sound to control weather, or at least to cause rain, was practiced in the Ozarks in the United States up to the early part of the 20th century. According to Vance Randolph “Singing late at night is said to ‘fetch on a shower,’ as explained in the little rhyme: Sing afore you go to bed, You’ll get up with a wet head.” Egypt has had a long history 72 of using magical incantations. Some of the oldest and most complete magical texts still in existence date to the first century BCE. Magical names and characters were common but also the simple use of long magical words repeated over and over. Religion historian Richard Kieckhefer wrote “papyri sometimes repeat long magical words, progressively abridged with each repetition, such as: ablanathanablanamacharamacharamarach ablanathanablanamacharamacharamara ablanathanablanamacharamacharamar “And so forth, until nothing but the initial ‘A’ remains.” 73 At the same time, Kieckhefer noted, “magicians in the 72 Randolph, Vance. Ozark Magic and Folklore. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1964, 31. 73 Kieckhefer, op cit, 20. 47 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Mediterranean world were devising other magical words like ‘abracadabra’ and ‘abraxas’ to use on amulets or papyri.” 74 “Abracadabra” is a widespread incantation normally used today in cartoons or by persons not knowing its significance that, according to Mare Köiva, “has gradually taken on the meaning on the unknown and the unintelligible.” 75 “Abraxas” is an interesting word supposedly derived from “the holy name of God.” The sum of the seven letters equals 365 or the number of days in a year. 76 “The most powerful and terrible magical spells in the Judaeo-Christian tradition,” according to Jeffrey Russell, “used the Tetragammaton (YHWH, the four transliterated Hebrew letters of the Name of God), preferably reversed.” 77 The use of “magical words” became very popular during the Middle Ages and have been linked to cabalistic texts. Many of the written incantations were accompanied with graphic designs such as circles, squares, crosses, images of the sun, etc. These magic words were often arranged in circles or squares, called palindromes, in which each letter and word may have specific meanings. During the Middle 74 Ibid. Köiva, Mare. “Palindromes and Letter Formulae: Some Reconsiderations” in Folklore, Vol. 8, December 1998. Published by the Institute of Estonian Language, Tartu, 21. 76 Ibid., 29. 77 Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Itchaca: Cornell University Press 1972, 9. 75 48 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Ages they were utilized by the Muslims and cabalists but have been found in Coptic scrolls as well. Köiva notes “In the 18ths century at the apogee of the use of the formula (in Estonia), the incantation was attached to planks, clay tablets or plates that were put up on the walls of houses or outhouses. At times of war and extensive fires such incantations were burnt in order to prevent fire.” 78 This formula was used in Estonia for protection from fire, rabies, snakebite, swelling, toothache, bleeding and to ensure successful hunting ventures. In many areas of the world, magic and spell-casting is still a very important function in survival. The Qemant, an ethnic Pagan-Hebraic group that lived in Ethiopia prior to the civil war there, practiced “white” magic to counteract the power of malevolent magic and witchcraft. According to anthropologist Frederick Gamst who studied the Qemant, “magic is practiced by all shamans, by certain knowledgeable peasants of any ethnic group, and by some religious practitioners of the Christian and Muslim faiths.” 79 Qemant sorcerers, who practice black magic, rely on incantations and “objects of medicine” for their spells. All of this may be counteracted by the shaman who practices “white magic” using primarily the same methods. 78 Ibid., 23. Gamst, Frederick C. The Qemant: A Pagan-Hebraic Peasantry of Ethiopia. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Case Studies in Cultural Anthopology 1969, 54. 79 49 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Perhaps the most feared product of magic is the curse. We know from the number of lead “curse tablets” and voodoo dolls found in the ancient world, from the Mediterranean countries to Roman occupied Britain, that most everyone at one time or another practiced spell-craft—and not always for benevolent purposes. More than 1600 curse tablets have been discovered so far and the majority are written in Greek, at least 130 have been found at the Roman spa known as Bath in England. Researchers suspect that close to 500 additional tablets are still waiting to be uncovered at Bath. Those that are not written in Greek are in Latin, which have been found in the Western regions of the Roman Empire. The oldest tablets date to at least the 5th century BCE and were concerned with business curses, theatrical competitions, or erotic-attraction spells. From the 4th century BCE to the 4th century CE the focus was on erotic-attraction or those having to do with athletic contests.80 The popularity of the curse tablet lasted until at least the 6th century CE. That curse tablets were used for such a long period, approximately one-thousand years, indicates that they were effective. Klauck noted, however, that “the usefulness of such actions should not be sought one-sidedly in the way they 80 Ogden, Daniel. “Binding Spells: Curse Tablets and Voodoo Dolls in the Greek and Roman Worlds” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe; Ancient Greece and Rome. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1999, 4. 50 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians effected other people; it is not the external world that is changed by magic, but the inner world of the one who practices it.” 81 While the tablets may not have resulted in the actual desired outcome, stress, tension and the feelings of helplessness were undoubtedly relieved. Luck reports that many curse tablets appear to have been written by the same person signifying that a professional sorcerer was producing such tablets. “Some of these professionals,” he wrote, “probably worked for lawyers whose clients were desperate to win their cases.” 82 Many people today would agree that lawyers have a similar relationship with such sorcerers. Ogden reports that the most important aspect of the curse tablet was its deposition. “There were five major contexts for this,” he writes “in a grave, in a chthonic sanctuary, in a body of water, in a place of specific relevance to the curse or its victim, or in a non-chthonic sanctuary. A recipe for the manufacture of a curse tablet recommends that it be deposited in ‘river, land, sea, stream coffin or well.”83 “A variation of the idea of depositing curse tablets in graves,” noted Ogden, “was to deposit them on a battlefield or in a place of execution. The 200 or so fragments of tablets 81 Kluck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context of Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press 2003, 226. 82 Luck, op cit., 108. 83 Ogden, op cit.15. 51 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians from Amathous in Cyprus were deposited in a particularly appropriate site…They were found at the bottom of a shaft under a mass of human bones.” 84 Treated like legal documents as compacts between the solicitor and the Gods, the tablets were tossed into the water to obtain justice and love, ensure winnings at the racetrack, and to request retribution for perceived wrongs. Curse tablets and binding spells were so common in antiquity that even Plato, in his Republic, remarked how cheaply they could be obtained. While not all curse tablets were left at wells or springs, during the imperial period at least, water became the preferred place of deposition. Wells, springs and other underground water sources were believed to have “sympathetic significance” and the cold water was an easy way to “set”, or “bind”, the tablet and the victim. It has been noted by researchers that one of the tablets from Bath “prays that its victims should become as liquid as water”. 85 While there were certain “recipes” for the completion of a curse tablet and many had exotic additions of Egyptian or Jewish influence, there was no specific “witch” responsible for them nor were the creators in any way tied to any formal witchcraft. However, the traditions at the time allowed for these formalized curses to be created by the general populace to resolve various personal issues. 84 85 Ibid., 17. Ibid., 23. 52 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Ogden points out that curse tablets were not considered unusual and in reality were part of the “ordinary religious practice in the ‘prayers for justice’ category,’ in which tablets can be phrased as quite normal prayers to mainline deities.” 86 While this practice may seem to embrace witchcraft today, in the ancient world “any curse tablet that appeals to a mainline deity, directly or indirectly, cannot be excluded from the sphere of ‘religion.’” 87 The most recent example of a curse tablet discovered thus far was uncovered during the 2005-2006 excavation in Leicester, England. Archaeologists from the University of Leicester, during an excavation on Vine Street in the city’s historic core, found a lead curse tablet dating to the second or third century CE. The handwritten Latin script was translated to read as follows: “To the god Maglus, 88 I give the wrongdoer who stole the cloak of Servandus. Silvester, Riomandus (etc.)…that he destroy him before the ninth day, the person who stole the cloak of Servandus…”89 The tablet then lists 19 possible suspects. According to Richard Buckley, co-Director of the University’s Archaeological Services, “most curses seem to 86 Ogden op cit., 85. Ibid. 88 “Maglus” is believed to be a title such as “prince” in Celtic. 89 “University of Leicester archaeologists unearth ancient curse.” Press release from University of Leicester, November 30, 2006. 87 53 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians relate to thefts and typically the chosen god is asked to do harm to the perpetrator. It has been suggested, on the basis of name forms and the value of items stolen, that the curses relate to the lives of ordinary people, rather than the wealthy, and that they were perhaps commissioned by the dedicator from a professional writer.” 90 Graf notes that the texts written on the lead or papyri “are prayers, ritualistic utterances to which writing gives unalterable permanence. At the same time that the spell was engraved on lead, it was spoken.” 91 The vocalization was performed as an act to “accompany and describe the ritual action.” 92 Water acts as an energy source, to “electrify” objects, and plays an important part in both magic and religion. Water is a conductor of information, including spells and curses. One curse found in a well in Attic was addressed: “I am sending this letter to Hermes and Persephone…”. 93 The sender was relying on the water’s ability to transport the request to the underworld. 90 Ibid. Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. trans. by Franklin Philip. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997, 207. 92 Ibid. 93 Graf, op cit, 131. 91 54 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Leicester Lead Curse Tablet (Photo courtesy University of Leicester) Martin Shore, senior site supervisor, with the curse tablet he excavated at Leicester. (Photo courtesy University of Leicester) 55 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Curses were commonly inscribed on papyrus, paper, wax or lead tablets and slate. “Cursing wells” were not uncommon in Wales. To be effective, the well had to have a northern exposure. Merrifield reports that, at least in Anglesey, Wales, “slate seems to have been considered a specially appropriate material for cursing…Perhaps because of its leaden colour.”94 A specific ritual was also required to place curses at the Anglesey “cursing well”: “A slate with the name of the person to be cursed scratched upon it, or a wretched frog pierced with pins, was thrown into the well by the curser, who then crawled round the well against the path of the sun, uttering appropriate curses. This was called ‘well-wishing’, signifying the exact opposite of the ordinary meaning of that term.” 95 Rhys wrote about this Welsh cursing well, called Ffynnon Elian, in his book Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx: The priestess of the well “kept a book in which she registered the name of each evil wisher for a trifling sum of money. When this had been done, a pin was dropped into the well in the name of the victim. …the trade in curses seems to 94 Merrifield, Ralph. The Archaeology of Ritual and Magic. New York: New Amsterdam Books 1987, 155. 95 Ibid. 56 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians have been a very thriving one: its influence was powerful and widespread.” 96 Those who had been named as victims could also pay a small sum and have their names removed from the book. In ancient Greece, even the State instituted formal curses to defend itself. One was all-inclusive, defending Greece from harmful spells or poisons, obstruction of the transportation of corn in Greek territory, rebellion, and the betrayal of public officials. The curse, inscribed in stone, read, “If anyone in office does not perform this curse at the statue of Dynamis when the games are convened at the Anthesteria or the festival of Heracles or that of Zeus, he is to be the object of the curse.” In addition, it cautions, “If anyone breaks the inscription on which this curse has been written, or chips off the letters, or rubs them smooth, he is to die, himself and his family with him.” 97 96 Rhys, John. Celtic Folklore: Welsh and Manx. New York: Gordon Press 1973, 397. 97 Ogden, Daniel. Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002, 275-276. 57 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians 58 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Five Jesus the Magician C hristians think of Jesus as the Savior of Mankind. The champion of good over evil, of light over darkness. However, the first Christians, as well as the Hebrews, viewed Jesus in a much different way. A bowl dating from the 2nd or 3rd century BCE to the 1st century CE was discovered by French marine archaeologist Franck Goddio in 2008 in the underwater ruins of Alexandria’s ancient harbor. On the bowl was an engraving interpreted to read “DIA CHRSTOU O GOISTAIS” or “by Christ the magician.” While present day Christians will most likely refute the find, it was not an unusual belief in those early years of the new religion. Goddio noted, “It could very well be a reference to Jesus Christ, in that he was once the primary exponent of white magic.” 98 The belief that Jesus practiced magic was certainly proposed in the 2nd century and most likely during the first. His name suddenly appeared in Egyptian magical texts in the 4th century CE. Klauck wrote, “this is not without further ado 98 “Earliest Reference Describes Christ as ‘Magician,” http://dsc.discovery.com/news/2008/10/01/jesus-bowl-print.html accessed 3/8/2010 59 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians proof of the Christian provenance of such recipes, but rather of the profoundly syncretistic orientation of magic.”99 Early religious expression was handled by priests or shamans, as it continues to be today. Those early priests were most likely magicians as well. Magicians assisted in the control of society and to add to the power of the political leader. At times these magicians became that political power. There is a long history of the use of magic by Hebrew leaders which predate Jesus. Renowned Egyptologist E.A. Wallis Budge wrote “the great legislator Moses ‘was learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians’…and there are numerous features in the life of this remarkable man which shew that he was acquainted with many of the practices of Egyptian magic.” 100 In fact, early texts refer to Moses as an especially gifted magician. According to Budge, “The turning of a serpent into what is apparently an inanimate, wooden stick, and the turning of the stick back into a writhing snake, are feats which have been performed in the East from the most ancient period; and the power to control and direct the movements of such venomous reptiles was one of the things of which the Egyptian was most proud, and in which he was most skilfull, already 99 in the time when the pyramids were being Klauck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context of Early Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press 2003, 213. 100 Budge, E.A. Wallis. Egyptian Magic. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner 1899,4. 60 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians built….But although we are told by the Hebrew writer that the Egyptian magicians could not imitate all the miracles of Moses, it is quite certain that every Egyptian magician believed that he could perform things equally marvelous by merely uttering the name of one of his gods…and there are many instances on record of Egyptian magicians utterly destroying their enemies by the recital of a few words possessed of magical power, and by the performance of some, apparently, simple ceremony.” 101 Exorcism, the act of casting demons from possessed individuals, is an act of magic. Interestingly enough the exorcism is a Judeo-Christian tradition. Ogden wrote, “The exorcist concerned are always Jewish or Christian, or projected as acting, somehow, in the Judeo-Christian tradition. It is accordingly most likely,” he continues, “that the pagan imported the practice of exorcism…from Jewish culture.” 102 Ogden’s conclusion based on the Judeo- Christian tradition of sorcery, is that “it is hardly surprising that some pagans should have viewed Jesus himself as a sorcerer.” 103 Graf elaborates on the use of exorcism: “Although they were acquainted with possession and exorcism, the pagans did not confound them with the binding rituals, where, in their eyes, the demonic helper of 101 Ibid., 6. Ogden, Daniel. Night’s Black Agents: Witches, Wizards and the Dead in the Ancient World. London: Hambledon Continuum 2008, 100. 103 Ibid., 102. 102 61 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians the sorcerer did not possess his victim, but tortured him. It is thus Christianity who broadens the field of exorcism by making it the most common means for resolving any problem in which superhuman forces come into play.” 104 In Acts 16: 16-18 Paul exorcises a “divination” demon from a young girl and finds that the community is not supportive of his actions, which took their soothsayer’s ability away. Paul was stripped, whipped and put in a stockade. Evidently, not all magical acts are entirely successful. We see consistently that “miracles” are linked to some practice of magic and these acts become “miracles” by some definition given by priests or other cultural leaders of a religious tradition. Christian’s see the acts of Jesus as miracles but regard those same acts by pagans as sorcery or deception. The Bible said that Jesus practiced magic and he proved his ability through the performance of miracles. According to The New Compact Bible Dictionary, a large tribe of magicians “which used curious arts” led by the seven sons of a Jew named Sceva who was the chief priest of the Hebrews was responsible for teaching the magical arts to other Jews. According to Ogden, “some itinerant exorcist, the seven sons of Sceva, the chief priest of the Jews, tried to deploy the 104 Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997, 162. 62 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians name of Jesus in one of their exorcisms, but with disastrous results.” 105 Reportedly, the demon mocked the exorcists, beat them and turned them out naked and bleeding. The message was that without faith using Jesus as a tool would fail. Early Coptic texts seem to add a bit of credence to Jesus as magician. According to Turner and Coulter, these books “tells of Jesus praying to his father by addressing him by various magical names: Aeeiouo, Iao, Aoi, and others.” 106 Other legends speak of Jesus creating toy doves out of clay and bringing them to life by breathing into them. While few references of Jesus are found in Rabbinic literature those that do exist depict Jesus as a “mamzer”—a child born in an adulterous union between a Jewish woman and a Roman soldier. According to Jewish lore, Jesus was “excommunicated by misunderstanding and one of thereafter the left rabbis Jewish after a religion, worshipped idols and led Israel astray.”107 Additionally Jesus reportedly was defeated in a magical contest with a Rabbi and sentenced to death for sorcery. The Christian belief that Jesus was the Son of God was viewed by the Jews as idolatry. 105 Ogden, Daniel. Night’s Black Agents: Witches, Wizards and the Dead in the Ancient World. London: Hambledon Continuum 2008, 102. 106 Turner, Patricia and Charles Russell Coulter. Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2000, 250. 107 Unterman, Alan. Dictionary of Jewish Lore & Legend. New York: Thames and Hudson 1991, 104. 63 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Joel Carmichael, in his book The Birth of Christianity: Reality and Myth, proposes that Jesus was executed by the Romans as an enemy of the State for stirring up the Jews rather than as a promised sacrificial god. In fact, early Christians such as Matthew saw Jesus as leading a movement of Jewish renewal rather than as a new religious order. Carmichael argues that Jesus was not hailed as the Son of God until Paul provided an organizational structure, and much energy, to create the Christian movement. After the destruction of the Jewish Temple in 70 CE Paul’s writings took on a life of their own and became the core doctrine of Christianity. That Jesus was widely regarded as a magician during his time has been quietly and effectively swept under the carpet. According to Graf, “The pagans who called the Christ a magician knew what they were talking about and could confirm their accusations by drawing on Christ’s biography: had he not, in his youth, spent some years in Egypt?” 108 Egypt was the seat of learning for many magicians. Underground, secret chambers were centers of learning where magic and the occult were taught. Graf goes on to state “It was thus affirmed that he [Jesus] was a magician and that he had performed his miracles through hidden techniques; supposedly he had learned these techniques in 108 Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997, 91. 64 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians the secret chambers of Egyptian temples, along with the names of powerful ‘angels’ and certain secret doctrines. This is a very precise accusation.” 109 Pagans at the time were quick to call Jesus a magician for he was not performing any miracle that other magicians had not done as well. Graf wrote that the “bellicose pagan” Celsus “makes Christ a magician also, but a rather entertaining one…Celsus…likens Christ’s miracles to the works of the sorcerers, who promise to perform rather surprising things, and to the achievements of the Egyptians.” 110 After all, pagan magicians were known to perform miracles in public squares such as driving demons out of men, curing illnesses, bringing forth lavish meals, “and make move as living what is not really so, but appears so to the imagination.” 111 “Even these miracles,” wrote Barbara Walker of Jesus’ acts, “were derivative. Turning water into wine at Cana was copied from a Dionysian ritual practiced at Sidon and other places. In Alexandria the same Dionysian miracle was regularly shown before crowds of the faithful, assisted by an ingenious system of vessels and siphons…Demeter of Eleusis multiplied loaves and fishes in her role of Mistress of Earth and Sea.” 112 In addition, walking on water could be 109 Ibid., 90. Ibid., 108. 111 Ibid. 112 Walker, Barbara G. The Women’s Encyclopedia of Myths and Secrets. Edison: Castle Books 1996, 466. 110 65 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians accomplished by anyone with the aid of a “powerful demon,” according to the Magic Papyri. While the miracles may have been identical, Kersey Graves noted in 1875, “Christians are in the habit of assuming that all the miraculous reports in the bible are unquestionably true, while those reported in pagan bibles are mere fables and fiction. But if they will reverse this proposition, it can be easier supported, because we have shown their miracles are better attested and authenticated. Their own bible admits that the heathen not only could and did perform miracles, but miraculous prodigies of the most astonishing character, equal to anything reported in their own religious history—such as transmuting water into blood, sticks into serpents, and stones into frogs.” The word “magician” has 113 different connotations depending on its usage. While it speaks of those who cast spells, practice divination, raise the dead, etc it also meant “conjurer” and swindler. Fourth century CE pagan Hierocles complained that Christians “prattle out their exaltations of Jesus all over the place, with the claim that he made the blind see and performed miracles of this sort. For what reason did I bring this subject up? So that you may be able to compare and contrast our accurate and solid judgment on each point with 113 Graves, Kersey. The World’s Sixteen Crucified Saviors: Christianity Before Christ. Kempton: Adventures Unlimited Press 2001, 315-316. 66 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians the gullibility of the Christians. For we consider a man who has done such things not a god, but a man that is pleasing to the gods. But they proclaim Jesus a god on the basis of a few wonders. Jesus walking on the Sea of Galilee. “This too,” he continues, “is worth thinking about. Peter and Paul and others of their ilk have exaggerated Jesus’ exploits. These men were liars, they were uneducated and they were sorcerers.” 114 114 As quoted in Daniel Ogden’s book, Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002, 67-68. 67 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians It is interesting that Peter and Paul, two of Christianity’s hero’s, were regarded as “uneducated…sorcerers” which links early Christianity to the practice of magic. Even earlier Greek Christian Origen, in 249 CE, wrote that Jesus’ miracles were equal to the acts of sorcerers, “since they undertake to perform somewhat miraculous feats, and with the achievements of the disciples of the Egyptians, those who sell their sacred learning for a few obols in the middle of the market, expel demons from people, blow diseases away and call up the souls of dead heroes.” 115 To be fair we must acknowledge that animosity between pagan and Christian was rampant during those early years when Christianity was threatening to reduce paganism to a second-class system of belief or replace it altogether. However, it is important to understand as well that thinkers during the first and second century following Jesus’ death continued to equate his acts with those of magicians—not of a god. 115 68 Ibid. Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Six Prayer as Magic M ost people who pray, be they Christian, Jew, Moslem or Pagan, may not realize that they are not simply asking the gods or God for a favor, blessing, forgiveness or understanding but many times are actually threatening or cajoling the deity. “If you grant this one favor,” they may pray, “I will go to church…stop this bad habit…” etc or, on the other hand may say, “If you don’t grant this favor I will join another church….stop believing in you…continue to do it because you don’t care” or “endlessly bother you until I get what I want.” “Prayers were used as incantations,” writes Jeffrey Russell of the Christian church, “God and the saints were compelled by threats, the sacraments were used for magical purposes, and wonders were sought distinguishing between magic and miracle.” often without 116 Prayers have contained these thoughts for thousands of years. Prayers have also been used to curse and to call down calamity on supposed enemies. So what then is prayer? It is, simply put, the use of spell-work. Edward Peters, professor of Medieval History, wrote “there is no magic at all, since the chief feature of magic is its power of compelling, rather than 116 Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1972, 11. 69 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians beseeching, supernatural forces” 117 just as prayer is used. Sacrifices have been a common method to solicit favors from the gods and keep them happy at the same time. Sacrifices were meant as sustenance for the gods and there was an expectation that if the gods did not comply with the wishes and the prayers of their followers, these sacrifices would be terminated, effectively punishing the gods. Threatening the gods in this way became ritualized. Likewise, family members and friends of persons deceased would bring food and drink to the grave. Pouring libations down into a tube set in the grave was a way to feed the dead and to ask for favors in exchange. Offerings are intended to please whatever god one solicits, but it is always a given that such offerings will cease if the expected response is not forthcoming. Offerings in the form of incense, animal sacrifices, candles and other items such as food and drink have been used unchanged for thousands of years. Christianity and Judaism continue this practice today. Offerings and sacrifices have the same function—to bribe, to cajole, to offer substitution (i.e., the life of an animal in exchange for the life of a human). Native Americans used to offer thanks to the deer and other wild animals that they hunted to ensure that the animals would not become angry and totally avoid the 117 Peters, Edward. The Magician, the Witch, and the Law. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1978, XV. 70 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians hunter. Obviously, this act was in the self-interest of the hunter to ensure the continuation of the species and a successful hunt. There is evidence that similar acts were observed up to 50,000 years ago by Neantherthal populations. Throughout time, the gods and goddesses, spirits and demons worshipped and feared by humankind have been given semi-human characteristics including personality traits of fickleness, love, hate, greed, envy, forgiveness, and anger in an ever changing montage of forms. Never knowing what their mood was at any given time, humans had to bribe as well as threaten these divine beings to ensure their selfpreservation. Plato, writing in his Laws during the 4th century BC, indicated how common this practice was by sorcerers during his time: “They undertake to persuade the gods, through the practice of sorceries with sacrifices and prayers and spells, and try to destroy root and branch individuals and entire houses for the sake of money..” Writing in Republic he added, “Beggar-priests and prophets go to the doors of the rich and persuade them that they have the power, acquired from the gods by sacrifices and incantations, to cure with pleasures and festivals any wrong done by the man himself or his ancestors, and that they will harm an enemy…for a small fee, if a man wishes it, since they persuade the gods…to serve them, by certain charms and bindings.” 71 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Plato’s sorcerers were not that different from modern day televangelists who solicit donations from worshippers so that God will perform some sort of desired act—from protecting marriage from gays and lesbians to bringing wealth to curing illness. Man and his gods have existed in a give and take relationship since the beginning of time and it will continue far into the future as long as humans desire something more than they have and believe that they have something of value to trade for it. “The powers assigned to demons and angels in the Christian cosmology,” wrote Sophie Page, “and their role as intermediaries between the heavenly and earthly realms suggested that they could be persuaded or compelled to assist magical practitioners who had access to the right skills and knowledge.” 118 “A fundamental aspect of religion,” wrote Rodney Stark, author of Discovering God, “is an exchange relationship between humans and Gods. Since Gods are the only plausible source of many benefits humans greatly desire, the most basic religious questions are: What do the Gods want? And, how can we gain their favor? Nor surprisingly, humans have answered that question based on their image of God(s). When people conceive of God as being of infinite power and scope, their answer tends to emphasize morality, good works 118 Page, Sophie. Magic in Medieval Manuscripts. London: The British Library 2004, 5. 72 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians and faith…But when Gods are conceived of as ‘humans’ with superpowers, the answer tends to focus on basic human needs and desires—food, drink, wealth, sex, and deference.”119 This may be true in the theological sense but in all practicality, contemporary humans treat their gods the same way they have for thousands of years. Christians and Jews depict God as the “father” with jealousy, anger and envy as major personality traits along with forgiveness, love and understanding. In some instances, God asked for a sacrifice as when he commanded Abraham to sacrifice Isaac. In this situation, a ram suddenly appeared and was sacrificed instead. Traditionally in Judaism, the first offspring of specific animals (calves, goats, lambs, rams, ewes and turtle doves) were permitted to be ritually offered to God in exchange for the welfare of the Jewish people. Sacrifices such as these continued until 70 AD when the Romans destroyed the second temple. Under Jewish law, all sacrifices must be conducted in the temple and could not be transferred to another location. Because the temple was never rebuilt, the sacrifice was abandoned. Sacrifice does continue however among the Jewish sect of Samaritans. Each year sheep are sacrificed as part of the Passover rites. 119 Stark, Rodney. Discovering God: The Origins of the Great Religions and the Evolution of Belief. New York: Harper Collins 2007, 105. 73 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Christians, for the most part, do not practice sacrifice in the same way. Animals are not slain and offered to God but money is an offering that continuously pours from the pockets of the worshippers in exchange for health, wealth and other desires. However, there are those isolated areas of the world where Christianity has mixed with indigenous religions and sacrifice does continue as a viable part of religious tradition and ritual. On St. Elijah’s day in Estonia, rams were sacrificed into the early 20th century to the water spirits. The ram was slaughtered and tossed into the river to protect humans and cattle from the greedy and ravenous waters. Folklorists have recorded that even into the 1960’s money and scarves were tossed into the waters to appease the “lake mother.” According to Ergo-Hart Västrik, “In Kotko (Estonia) the sacrifice to the water spirit (jokiämmä, merenhaltei, huonoi, kirlouks) was integrated into church practice: a small wooden chapel was located near the sacrificial site, the ceremony was conducted by a priest. The Christian background is reflected in the word ‘Kirlouks!’ said out loud during the ceremony, which most likely is the Old-Russian counterpart for the priest’s ‘Kyrie Eleison.’”120 120 Västrik, Ergo-Hart. “The Waters and Water Spirits in Votian Folk Belief” in Folklore, Vol. 12, December 1999, Published by: Institute of the Estonian Language 74 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Both Muslim and Christian Ethiopians even today gather in huge numbers for the fertility rite observed at Lake Bishoftu, which include an animal sacrifice. Holy wells and waters around the world are visited by pilgrims in search of health and this is true in Ethiopia as it is in Great Britain and the United States. Many pilgrims toss coins, flowers and other offerings into the waters in an effort to get on the good side of God(s). The often ignored “ritual” of tossing coins into fountains is a continuation of this ancient rite. In some cultures, it is not unknown to beat idols with sticks and clubs in an effort to force divine beings into complying with the wishes of their followers. “Clearly,” writes Brenda Lewis, “the old gods and their sacrifices, rooted further back in time than history knows, still have currency in the twenty-first century. …Perhaps somewhere in the world there will always be those who stay faithful to the old ways and their sacrifices, and use them as the pathway leading to God.”121 It is almost impossible to differentiate religion and magic. “If a divinity was invoked according to the correct forms, especially if one knew how to pronounce its real name,” wrote Franz Cumont, “it was compelled to act in conformity to the will of the priest. The sacred words were an 121 Lewis, Brenda Ralph. Ritual Sacrifice: Blood and Redemption. Glouchestershire: Sutton Publishing Limited 2001, 173. 75 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians incantation that compelled the superior powers to obey the officiating person, no matter what purpose he had in view.” 122 With such knowledge men acquired a huge amount of power over spirits. Prayer is used today to acquire as much power although those who practice it do so unknowingly. In addition, Cumont reports, “incantation often assumed the shape of a prayer addressed to a power stronger than man, and magic became a religion.”123 122 Cumont, Franz. Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism. New York: Dover Publications 1956, 93. 123 Ibid., 186. 76 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Seven Paul and the Rise of Christianity P aul, regarded as the Founder of the Church, never met nor knew Jesus. He seized upon the personality of Jesus and Jesus’ death rather than Jesus in life to create a theology separate and distinct from those who had actually known Jesus. “Paul makes a point,” wrote Charles Freeman, “of stressing that faith in Christ does not involve any kind of identification with Jesus in his life on earth but has validity only in his death and resurrection.” 124 This was Paul’s way to become a distinct influence in his time without having to have any personal attachment to or knowledge of Jesus. His efforts often met with failure however and he was subject to beatings by Jewish Christians and resistance on the part of many Gentiles who objected to Paul’s Jewish based theology. Paul was uneducated, knowing little of classical literature or of the spiritual life in the rest of the Greco-Roman world. His knowledge of Greek literature and philosophy was said to be no more than rudimentary. He was also said to have an abrasive personality which he used effectively to promote his theology. Paul was both competitive and terrified of 124 Freeman, Charles. The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason. New York: Vintage Books 2002, 112-113. 77 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians competition saying that anyone proposing a different theology (be they man or angel) than his was to be condemned. Paul may also have been a proponent for keeping women silent and ignorant, “Let your women keep silence in the churches: for it is not permitted unto them to speak; but they are commanded to be under obedience, as also saith the law. And if they will learn anything, let them ask their husbands at home…” (1 Corinthians 14: 34-35) There has long been debate over Paul’s attitudes towards women, however. Many of Paul’s churches did have women leaders and he appears to have spoken warmly and with respect of women in his influence. In fact, Paul’s relationships with women may have caused male members of his church to take illicit steps to bring grief upon him. Bart D. Ehrman noted “…no wonder that men in the churches eventually decided to clamp down forging documents in Paul’s name condemning the practice of having women speak in church…inserting passages into Paul’s authentic letters urging women to be silent…”125 Paul was also responsible for one of the first mass book burnings during his two years in Ephesus—books of “curious arts.” This was, unfortunately, the beginning of Christianity’s attacks on learning and magic. 125 Ehrman, Bart D. Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scriptures and Faiths We Never Knew. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2003, 39. 78 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Unfortunately, these letters passed down as authentic and Paul’s actions at Ephesus would come to typify the early Christian church, which viewed education and knowledge as diabolical. What was not anticipated by Paul or others is the additional power that was given to such books through their fiery destruction. If they were that dangerous that they needed to be destroyed, any remaining texts would have become horded and valued beyond measure. Paul’s theology appears to have varied according to his mood and needs. As his early church struggled with its place in the world so too did Paul. Paul’s concept of Jesus is also inconsistent. He believed that Jesus was an intermediary between Man and God but certainly not the personification of God, which is a basic belief of Christians today. Paul was sure that the Second Coming was an immediate event and when it did not occur, “the system inspired by his ideas veered round to a total, timeless amplification of magical procedures.” 126 Paul’s theology changed with his failures. As Carmichael noted, the pagan Mysteries and their “pure magic” became Paul’s baptism and Eucharist with their “auxiliary magic.” 127 To Paul Jesus was not only the “savior” but a necessary player for the end of the world. The early Christian theology 126 Carmichael, Joel. The Birth of Christianity: Reality and Myth. New York: Dorset Press 1989, 130. 127 Ibid., 133. 79 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians viewed the end of the world as its primary purpose and desire—and this view has continued into our present day by many Christian sects. Eventually the Christian focus on the world’s end and the Glorious Return waned and only lip-service was given to the concept. It became, as Carmichael wrote, “a mere traditional ornament, no more than a metaphor.” 128 In Christian mythology Paul is said to have brought back to life Nero’s servant-lover who had accidentally fallen out of a window and was killed. Nero however, was not pleased and accused Paul of being a magician. Again, what Christianity views as miraculous was regarded as an act of magic by others. 128 80 Carmichael, op cit., 140. Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians A depiction of Paul exhorting Christian mobs to burn books of “curious arts,” by Doré. 81 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Chapter Eight Witchcraft Laws L aws to control and to define witchcraft have existed throughout time, from ancient Babylon to modern day Cameroon. Not all laws were created to catch and punish witches, however. The 7th century Pactus Alamannorum imposed a fine on persons who accuse innocent people of being witches. It also contains a passage prohibiting the seizure and harming of witches by individuals, which, according to Russell, is “the first indication of mob violence against witches.” 129 Perhaps the oldest recorded witchcraft laws are from ancient Babylon and are part of the 4,314 lines of Hammurabi’s code. Over a thousand years older than the Mosaic code, these edicts enforce personal responsibility and punish those who have not shown the required responsibility towards society or fellow man. “If a man has placed an enchantment upon a man, and has not justified himself,” the code states, “he upon whom the enchantment is placed to the Holy River shall go; into the Holy River he shall plunge. If the Holy River holds him he who enchanted him shall take his house. If, on the contrary, 129 Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1972, 61. 82 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians the man is safe and thus innocent, the wizard loses his life, and his house.” 130 This is perhaps the first requirement for the “water test” of a suspected witch in history. Biblical prohibitions against spells, divination and witchcraft have already been discussed to some extent. Early Hebrew legislation against witchcraft and magic was strict. In one instance of an official crack down people collected all of their books on “curious arts” to be burned: “Many of them also which used curious arts brought their books together, and burned them before all men: and they counted the price of them, and found it fifty thousand pieces of silver.” 131 Exodus 22:18, perhaps one of the most often quoted Biblical passages, reads, “Thou shalt not suffer a witch to live”. Translations that are more contemporary have changed this to read, “Thou shalt not suffer a poisoner to live” but the original translation remains a favorite of the Church. Deuteronomy 18:10-11 states “There shall not be found among you any one…that useth divination, or an observer of times, or an enchanter, or a witch, Or a charmer, or a consulter with familiar spirits, or a wizard, or a necromancer.” This passage outlawed all forms of witchcraft and magic. 130 Taylor, John M. The Witchcraft Delusion. New York: Gramercy Books 1995, 5. 131 Acts 19:18 and 19 83 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Ancient Rome had its Laws of the Twelve Tables, which, among other things, regulates what is acceptable magic and sorcery and what isn’t. One of the prohibitions was “Nobody shall, by spells, take away the harvest of a neighbor.” The Laws of the Twelve Tables, according to Graf, “does not punish magic as such, but punishes the violation of the right to property in order to cause harm to others or to enrich oneself at their expense.” 132 It is this issue of property rights and wealth that has inspired cultures throughout history to regulate and punish witches and sorcerers. It is this cause also that has created the witch-hunts of the Middle Ages and those that continue to exist in Africa and other areas around the world. During later periods of the Roman Empire, the senate decreed that sacrifices intended to injure a neighbor were forbidden with offending magicians found guilty of “magical and diabolical acts” being burned alive and those who consulted with them subject to crucifixion. Constantine either banished or executed sorcerers. Those accused of witchcraft were subject to torture. Kieckhefer notes, “even people who wore magical amulets to ward off disease might now be executed.” 132 133 It is undoubtedly these Roman laws Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997, 42. 133 Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1989, 41. 84 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians that survived as instruments of the Catholic Church’s battle against witchcraft. One of the earliest ecclesiastical decrees against witchcraft was made in 315 CE that condemned soothsayers to five years’ penance. Divination and fortunetellers were likewise condemned by the Decretum canon law that treated them as idolaters. Punishment meted out under canon law included excommunication. Papal bulls were published in the 14th and 15th centuries against witchcraft and the Inquisition began in earnest with Innocent VIII’s Summis desiderantes affectibus” published in 1484 and the resultant publication by Sprenger and Kramer of the Malleus Maleficarum (also known as the “Witches Hammer”). “in the view of the Church,” wrote the Very Reverend John Lee, “it was equally heretical to deny the existence of witchcraft as it was to practice it…” 134 The insistence of the church in the reality of the witch in league with the devil would create a lasting effect. Henry VIII, in the statutes of 1541, made witchcraft a felony in England. Queen Elizabeth I, in 1562, amended the Act of 1541 but James I, a religious bigot in his own right, fashioned a new anti-witchcraft law out of it in 1604 that further defined the crime. The scope of witch crimes was 134 Lee, John. “Lee’s History of the Church of Scotland” in Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine, Vol. 89 (545) March 1861, 291. 85 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians expanded, which also expanded the numbers of persons accused, arrested, tortured and executed. The Witchcraft Act of 1604 remained on the English statutes until 1736 when it was repealed. The hesitancy of English judges, however, resulted in the Act becoming less than effective and those accused of witchcraft had legal recourse for their own safety. By 1676 it was remarked that “the reverend judges, especially of England now are much wiser, not only than the proletarian rabble, but than they too who profess themselves to be the great philosophers…and encouragement to such accusations.” give small or no 135 The Witchcraft Act of 1736 was much more civilized. The Act’s premise was that magic and witchcraft did not exist. It prohibited anyone from accusing another of practicing either magic or witchcraft and it forbade anyone from claiming that they did. A maximum of one year in prison was the punishment, but it did stop the practice of accusations being made for political or person reasons. While it theoretically allowed anyone to practice magic or witchcraft in private, it did create laws to prohibit those who advertised their trade as fortune-tellers or magicians. The following is the complete text of the act: 135 Thomas, Keith. Religion and the Decline of Magic.London: Penguin Books 1973, 546-547. 86 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Text of the Witchcraft Act of 1736 “An Act to repeal the Statute made in the First Year of the Reign of King James the First, intituled, An Act against Conjuration, Witchcraft, and dealing with evil and wicked Spirits, except so much thereof as repeals an Act of the Fifth Year of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth, Against Conjurations, Inchantments, and Witchcrafts, and to repeal an Act passed in the Parliament of Scotland in the Ninth Parliament of Queen Mary, intituled, Anentis Witchcrafts, and for punishing such Persons as pretend to exercise or use any kind of Witchcraft, Sorcery, Inchantment, or Conjuration. “Be it enacted by the King’s most Excellent Majesty, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons, in this present Parliament assembled, and by the Authority of the same, That the Statute made in the First Year of the Reign of King James the First, intituled, An Act against Conjuration, Witchcraft, and dealing with evil and wicked Spirits, shall, from the Twentyfourth Day of June next, be repealed and utterly void, and of none effect (except so much thereof as repeals the Statute made in the Fifth Year of the Reign of Queen Elizabeth) intituled, An Act against Conjurations, Inchantments, and Witchcrafts. “And be it further enacted by the Authority aforesaid, That from and after the said Twenty-fourth Day of June, the Act passed in the Parliament of Scotland, in the Ninth 87 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Parliament of Queen Mary, intituled, Anentis Witchcrafts, shall be, and is hereby repealed. “And be it further enacted, That from and after the said Twenty-fourth Day of June, no Prosecution, Suit, or Proceeding, shall be commenced or carried on against any Person or Persons for Witchcraft, Sorcery, Inchantment, or Conjuration, or for charging another with any such Offence, in any Court whatsoever in Great Britain. “And for the more effectual preventing and punishing of any Pretences to such Arts or Powers as are before mentioned, whereby ignorant Persons are frequently deluded and defrauded; be it further enacted by the Authority aforesaid, That if any Person shall, from and after the said Twenty-fourth Day of June, pretend to exercise or use any kind of Witchcraft, Sorcery, Inchantment, or Conjuration, or undertake to tell Fortunes, or pretend, from his or her Skill or Knowledge in any occult or crafty Science, to discover where or in what manner any Goods or Chattels, supposed to have been stolen or lost, may be found, every Person, so offending, being thereof lawfully convicted on Indictment or Information in that part of Great Britain called England, or on Indictment or Libel in that part of Great Britain called Scotland, shall, for every such Offence, suffer Imprisonment by the Space of one whole Year without Bail or Mainprize, and once in every Quarter of the said Year, in some Market Town of the proper County, upon the Market Day, there 88 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians stand openly on the Pillory by the Space of One Hour, and also shall (if the Court by which such Judgement shall be given shall think fit) be obliged to give Sureties for his or her good Behaviour, in such Sum, and for such Time, as the said Court shall judge proper according to the Circumstances of the Offence, and in such case shall be further imprisoned until such Sureties be given.” The Witchcraft Act of 1736 itself was repealed in Britain in 1951, resulting in the creation of the contemporary witchcraft, or Wicca, movement. The various 136 anti-witchcraft laws prior to 1736 emphasized the prosecution of black witchcraft rather than the white witch and the cunning man. Briggs noted “no important Protestant states actually undertook a major persecution of the cunning folk; indeed, they were probably at greater risk in Catholic Europe.”137 In practice, however, the Reformation shaped the Burning Times unlike anything else. Folklorist Michael Judge, once a Congressional historian, wrote, “During the years of the Protestant ascent in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Europe and England succumbed to the notion that all things inspired by ancient mythologies had to be expunged. In 136 Hutton, Ronald. The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1991, 331. 137 Briggs, Robin. Witches & Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft. New York: Viking Penguin 1996, 126. 89 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians villages throughout Europe, many women still practiced superstitious forms of healing and divination handed down through the generations from the Pagan days of the Romans. These folk practices now bore the stamp of witchcraft. …Soon old women who healed children’s fevers with herbs gathered by moonlight found themselves bound to burning stakes.”138 I have previously mentioned the similar magic practices, those being incantations, rituals, etc., of the Church and the sorcerer and this, Briggs wrote, contributed to the Catholic Church’s efforts to totally eliminate the witch. “The hostility between the parish clergy,” he states, “and the cunning folk may have even been intensified to the extent that they were rival claimants for ritual or magical power; priests did not need to make any radical change in their world view to justify action against these interlopers.” 139 Since the 1970’s the anti-witchcraft laws in Africa have changed from the colonial prosecution of witches only when physical aggression could be proved to today’s prosecution purely of accused witches, “condemned without any concrete 138 Judge, Michael. The Dance of Time: A Miscellany of History and Myth, Religion and Astronomy, Festivals and Feast Days. New York: MJF Books 2004, 76. 139 Ibid., 127. 90 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians proof and, moreover, often without their own admission of guilt.” 140 “Anxiety about witchcraft,” noted Peter Geschiere, “is now so widespread in Africa that the courts cannot afford to be indifferent. To take up the terms of a high ranking Zairian judge, ‘citizens (should not) experience a psychological schism’ because state courts treat witchcraft as an ‘imaginary offence’ while the customary judges take such accusations very seriously and impose heavy punishments. The problems encountered by judges in the face of witchcraft and the question of the establishment of convincing proof are now common themes dealt with by African authors writing in legal journals.” 141 140 Geschiere, Peter. The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia 1997, 169. 141 Ibid., 170. 91 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians 17th century broadside announcing the trial and execution of three women accused of witchcraft. 92 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Title page of witch-hunter Cotton Mather’s pamphlet, Boston 1693. 93 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Conclusion J esus may well have existed as a man, as a great teacher and a mystic. Unfortunately, there are no written accounts of Jesus which date to his era. In addition, according to Mercatante and Dow, “modern scholars agree that it is impossible to reconstruct the ‘historical Jesus,’ since all documents are written from a Christian bias—the beliefs of the early Christian church—to prove that Jesus was the Messiah and the Son of God.” 142 What we do know is that Jesus was reported to be a practitioner of the mystical arts—a magician. We also know that Christianity absorbed many pagan ideas, rituals and traditions, which still exist in both the Catholic and Protestant religions. Magic performed by the pagans was condemned, when performed by Christians, however it became a source of miracles. Book Christians burning originated with resorted to murder, Paul and vandalism the and early the destruction of institutions of learning to maintain and increase their dominance. Any ideas not in agreement with Church teachings were prohibited. Christian teachings promoted by Paul were not only unnatural but nonsensical. Slaves were told to obey their masters for to do so would be 142 Mercatante, Anthony S. & James R. Dow. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend. New York: Facts on File 2004, 473. 94 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians to obey god. Childbirth was regarded as unnatural and sinful and women who died during childbirth were believed damned. Martin Luther wrote, “Let them die in childbirth— that is why they are there.” Death was used to invoke fear and viewed only as punishment, not as part of the natural process of life. The cunning man and woman were hunted as witches, successfully ending natural healing. Midwives were the most evil of the evil. Nature was no longer something of reverence but held as something evil and filled with demons. The god of Nature, Pan, was transformed into the image of the Christian devil. Magic was no longer an ancient system of using supernatural power for good or evil but a forbidden idea punished by death. It was also a concept that the Church reinforced through a “doctrine of demons.” This doctrine was used to instill fear and maintain control of the populace and also kept the idea of witchcraft and magic alive. Witch-hunts assured the success of Orthodox Christianity as well as the belief in an angry and merciless God. Amulets used by pagans and condemned by the Church rapidly gained acceptance by Christians. MacMullen wrote, “for the sake of health, Christianity and sorcery had been forced into open partnership.” A large part of this partnership was also rooted in monetary profits gleaned by the Church through its sale of such amulets. 95 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Today it is impossible to separate “magic” from “religion.” Christianity continues many of those ancient traditions once relegated to the pagan community. MacMullen quotes one ancient voice saying “how many are only Christians in name but pagans in their acts…attending to pagan myths and genealogies and prophecies and astrology and drug lore…?”143 Unfortunately, the success of Christianity was not in saving souls but in twisting theology and history and perverting ancient beliefs in its attempt to destroy an ancient way of life that had sustained humankind since the beginning of time. We have seen in this study that the practice of magic continued unabated from paganism to Christianity and is still popular to this day. There is no dispute that black magic has been feared for thousands of years, but it was never feared as much as the Christian Church caused it to be. Christian mythology was effectively utilized to create an atmosphere of fear, suspicion and discrimination, which served not only to eliminate the Churches enemies but to force the populace to bow down and surrender their souls and their traditions. This campaign resulted in a very successful suppression of belief. 143 96 Ibid., 145. Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians About the Author G ary R. Varner is the author of more than twenty books on folklore, mythology, history, Native Americans and the development of religion. Some of his books are Sacred Wells: A Study in the History, Meaning, and Mythology of Holy Wells & Waters, Ancient Footprints: Cultural Diffusion in Pre-Columbian America, Gargoyles, Grotesques and Green Man: Ancient Symbolism in European and American Architecture, and The Dark Wind: Witches & the Concept of Evil. In an attempt to stay current in the fluid world of anthropology, folklore and mythology, Varner maintains membership in the American Folklore Society and the Royal Anthropological Institute. His books can be found in over 900 university and municipal libraries around the world, including the British Museum and the Smithsonian Institution. Varner’s website (www.authorsden.com/garyrvarner) is frequented by readers around the world. 97 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Bibliography Alexander, Marc. A Companion to the Folklore & Customs of Britain. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing Ltd. 2002 Black, Jeremy and Anthony Green. Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia. Austin: University of Texas Press 1992, 186. Briggs, Robin. Witches & Neighbors: The Social and Cultural Context of European Witchcraft. New York: Viking Penguin 1996 Budge, E.A. Wallis. Egyptian Magic. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner 1899 Budge, E.A. Wallis. Babylon Life and History. New York: Barnes & Noble Books 2005, Carmichael, Joel. The Birth of Christianity: Realty and Myth. New York: Dorset Press 1989 Cumont, Franz. Oriental Religions in Roman Paganism. New York: Dover Publications 1956 Ellerbe, Helen. The Dark Side of Christian History. Orlando: Morningstar and Lark 1995 Fraser, Sir George. Adonis Attis Osiris. New Hyde Park: University Books Freeman, Charles. The Closing of the Western Mind: The Rise of Faith and the Fall of Reason. New York: Vintage Books 2005 98 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Geschiere, Peter. The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia 1997 Graf, Fritz. Magic in the Ancient World. Cambridge: Harvard University Press 1997 Graves, Kersey. The World’s Sixteen Crucified Saviors: Christianity Before Christ. Kempton: Adventures Unlimited Press 2001 Greenwood, Susan and Raje Airey. The Complete Illustrated Encyclopedia of Witchcraft & Practical Magic. London: Hermes House 2006 Hutton, Ronald. The Pagan Religions of the Ancient British Isles. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd. 1991 Jones, David E. Sanapia: Comanche Medicine Woman. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology 1972 Judge, Michael. The Dance of Time: A Miscellany of History and Myth, Religion and Astronomy, Festivals and Feast Days. New York: MJF Books 2004 Kieckhefer, Richard. Magic in the Middle Ages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1990 Klauck, Hans-Josef. The Religious Context Christianity. Minneapolis: Fortress Press 2003 of Early Köiva, Mare. “Palindromes and Letter Formulae: Some Reconsiderations” in Folklore, Vol. 8, December 1998. Published by the Institute of Estonian Language, Tartu Luck, George. “Witches and Sorcerers in Classical Literature” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. Philadelphia: University on Pennsylvania Press 1999 99 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians MacMullen, Ramsay. Christianity & Paganism in the Fourth to Eighth Centuries. New Haven: Yale University Press 1997 Mercatante, Anthony S. & James R. Dow. The Facts on File Encyclopedia of World Mythology and Legend. New York: Facts on File 2004 Moon, Shiela. A Magic Dwells: A Poetic and Psychological Study of the Navajo Emergence Myth. San Francisco: Guild for Psychological Studies Publishing House 1970 Newall, Venetia. “The Jew as a Witch Figure” in The Witch in History. New York: Barnes & Noble, Inc. 1996 Ogden, Daniel. “Binding Spells: Curse Tablets and Voodoo Dolls in the Greek and Roman Worlds,” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Ancient Greece and Rome. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1999 Ogden, Daniel. Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2002 Ogden, Daniel. Night’s Black Agents: Witches, Wizards and the Dead in the Ancient World. London: Hambledon Continuum 2008 Opler, Morris Edward. An Apache Life-Way: The Economic, Social, and Religious Institutions of the Chiracahua Indians. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1941 Page, Sophie. Magic in Medieval Manuscripts. London: The British Library 2004 Paine, Sheila. Amulets: Sacred Charms of Power and Protection. Rochester: Inner Traditions 2004 Peters, Edward. The Magician, the Witch, and the Law. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 1978 100 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Randolph, Vance. Ozark Magic and Folklore. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 1964 Russell, Jeffrey Burton. Witchcraft in the Middle Ages. Ithaca: Cornell University Press 1972 Simmons, Marc Witchcraft in the Southwest: Spanish & Indian Supernaturalism on the Rio Grande. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press 1980 Spence, Lewis. The Magic Arts in Celtic Britain. Mineola: Dover Publications, Inc. 1999 Thomas, Keith. Religion and the Decline of Magic. London: Penguin Books 1973 Thomsen, Marie-Louise. “Witchcraft and Magic in Ancient Mesopotamia” in Witchcraft and Magic in Europe: Biblical and Pagan Societies. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press 2001 Turner, Patricia and Charles Russell Coulter. Dictionary of Ancient Deities. Oxford: Oxford University Press 2000 Unterman, Alan. Dictionary of Jewish Lore & Legend. 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New York: The Viking Fund 1950 102 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Index A Africa, 84, 90, 91, 99 Alexandria, 25, 59, 65 amulets, 8, 33, 34, 40, 41, 48, 84, 95 animal sacrifice, 75 Apache, 16, 17, 100 astrologers, 5 B Babylon, 4, 6, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 82, 98 black arts, 15 black magic, 14, 21, 49, 96 books, 10, 11, 25, 31, 39, 44, 63, 78, 79, 81, 83, 97 burning, 90 Burning Times, 12, 89 62, 63, 64, 68, 69, 72, 74, 75, 79, 80, 81, 94, 96, 98 Christianity, 1, 3, 8, 12, 16, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 31, 35, 36, 42, 51, 60, 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80, 94, 95, 96, 98, 99, 100 Comanche, 17, 19, 20, 99 cunning men, 16 curse tablets, 50, 51, 52, 53 curses, 50, 52, 53, 56, 57 D deformed, 13 demon, 6, 38, 62, 63, 66 demons, 16, 39 E C Cameroon, 82 cat, 45 Catholic, 19, 30, 32, 37, 85, 89, 90, 94 Celtic, 45, 53, 57, 101 charms, 8, 18, 22, 33, 34, 36, 39, 40, 41, 44, 71 children, 18, 38, 43, 90 Christian, 3, 6, 11, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 39, 48, 49, 60, 61, Egypt, 25, 38, 47, 64 Ethiopia, 49 evil, 5, 13, 14, 15, 17, 18, 21, 31, 33, 42, 57, 59, 87, 95 evil eye, 15 exorcism, 61 exorcists, 63 F familiars, 10 103 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians M G Greece, 5, 6, 14, 29, 41, 42, 50, 57, 99, 100 Greek, 41 Greeks, 5, 6, 12, 39 H Hammurabi, 9, 82 Hebrew, 10, 26, 27, 40, 48, 60, 61, 83 herbs, 90 Hypatia, 25 I incantations, 38, 40, 42, 44, 46, 47, 48, 49, 90 Israel, 10, 11, 63 J Jesus, 3, 4, 5, 7, 20, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 77, 79, 94 Jewish, 24, 25, 35, 40, 52, 61, 63, 64, 73, 77, 101 Jews, 12, 24, 26, 27, 40, 62, 63, 64, 73 K kolossi, 41 L law, 10, 14, 15, 42, 46, 73, 78, 85 laws, 9, 10, 16, 82, 84, 86, 89, 90 lead tablets, 41 104 magi, 4, 5, 6 magic, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41, 42, 45, 48, 49, 50, 51, 56, 59, 60, 61, 62, 64, 68, 69, 75, 76, 78, 79, 80, 83, 84, 86, 90, 95, 96 magical texts, 35, 36, 47, 59 magical words, 47, 48 magician, 16, 21, 29, 34, 59, 60, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 80, 94 miracles, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 68, 94 mobs, 25, 81 N Native American, 17, 20, 44, 70, 97 O offerings, 41 P pagan, 7, 16, 22, 23, 24, 25, 29, 31, 32, 33, 40, 61, 65, 66, 68, 79, 94, 96 Paiute, 43, 102 Paul, 2, 3, 10, 60, 62, 64, 67, 68, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 94, 98 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians Persian, 5 prayer, 31, 69, 76 priests, 4, 5, 14, 31, 32, 60, 62, 71, 90 Protestant, 36, 37, 89, 94 Q Qemant, 49 R Reformation, 36, 38, 89 ritual, 19, 20, 30, 32, 54, 56, 65, 74, 75, 90 Roman, 46 Romans, 12, 26, 39, 46, 64, 73, 90 S Saul, 10, 11 Scotland, 85, 87, 88 shaman, 19, 20, 49 shape-shift, 46 sorcerer, 21, 43, 44, 51, 61, 62, 90 spells, 4, 16, 18, 23, 26, 29, 30, 32, 34, 35, 39, 45, 46, 48, 49, 50, 52, 56, 57, 66, 71, 83, 84 T Twelve Tables, 42, 46, 84 W Wales, 56 White Magic, 14 wise women, 16 witch, 4, 9, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 32, 33, 37, 43, 44, 46, 49, 52, 53, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 95 witchcraft, 4, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25, 32, 33, 38, 43, 44, 49, 52, 53, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 95 Witchcraft Act, 86, 87, 89 witches, 9, 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 82, 84, 90 women, 5, 14, 16, 21, 78, 90, 92, 95 105 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians 106 Magic, Witchcraft, Pagans & Christians 107