GRY 124 HANDOUT
DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA
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FEDERAL UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY MINNA DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY SECOND SEMESTER GRY 124 HANDOUT
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INTRODUCTION |
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GRY124 is a 3 credit unit course for students studying towards acquiring a Bachelor of Technology (B. Tech.) degree in Geography with option in Remote Sensing or meteorology and other related courses. The course is divided into 10 modules and 15 study units. It will first take a brief review of the nature of the environment and its components. This course will then go ahead to discuss these components their characteristics and how man interact with them. The course went further to discuss the role of man as the main agent of change within his environment, current environmental problems such as; deforestation, pollution, desertification, soil erosion and flood etc.) Biochemical cycles; ecosystem balance and its description, population explosion and issues of world food and water supply; effect of agriculture on the environment, global energy problems and alternative energy source s, and the problem of water management.
STUDY UNIT There are 19 units and 6 modules in this course. They are; UNIT1: Nature of the Environment UNIT 5: Flora and Fauna (Biosphere)
UNIT 1: Man’s Place in the Scheme of Things MODULE 3: PROBLEMS EMANATING FROM MAN-ENVIRONMENT AND INTERACTIONS AND THEIR SOLUTION UNIT 1: Deforestation, Land degradation and Desertification UNIT 2: Ozone Layer Depletion and Climate Change UNIT 3: Deterioration of Fresh Water Resources UNIT 4: Destruction of Biodiversity UNIT 5: Generation of Waste and Toxic Chemicals
UNIT 1: Land and Water Related Problems UNIT 2: Biosphere Related Problems UNIT 3: Others MODULE 5: ENVIRONMENT OF THE FUTURE THE ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS UNIT 1: The need for collective action UNIT 2: Collective Actions UNIT 3: Right to give up (Sacrifice)
MODULE 6: STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION UNIT 1: Audio Visual UNIT 2: Methods (for implantation)
MODULE ONE: Unit 1: Nature of the Environment Content 1. Introduction 2. Objectives 3.0 Main Body 3.1 Definitions 3.2 The Environment 3.3 Environmental Resources 3.4 Importance of Environment 4.0 Conclusion 5. Summary |
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MODULE 1: INTRODUCTION |
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Appreciating how we interact with our environment is crucial for a well-informed view of our place in the world and for a mature awareness that we are one species among many on a planet full of life. Understanding our relationship with the environment is also vital because we are altering the very natural systems we need, in ways we do not yet fully comprehend We depend on our environment for air, water, food, shelter and everything else essential for living. However, our actions modify our environment, whether we intend them or not. Many of these actions have enriched our lives, bringing us longer life spans, better health, etc. However, these improvements have often degraded the natural systems that sustain us. Impacts such as air and water pollution, soil erosion and species extinction can compromise human well-being, pose risk to human life and threaten our ability to build a society that will survives and thrive in the long term. What is Environment?: In simplistic terms, the environment encompasses all living and non-living features existing around (and including us) and interaction mechanism between them. Environmental science is the study of how the natural world works, how our environment affects us and how we affect our environment. Seen as major groupings, the environment can be said to be made up of four components namely; land (Lithosphere), Air (Atmosphere), Water (Hydrosphere) and living things inside and on the surface of the earth in the air and in the water (Biosphere). THE ENVIRONMENT The nature of the environment anywhere on the surface of the earth is determined by the type of balance (a state of equilibrium) that exists between these components. This state of balance is arrived at by an array of complex process which are interwoven and interdependent upon one another. This in any locality is termed ecosystem from the word Ecological Systems. Where the land surface is covered by loose sand, the air is hot and dry, water is consequently lacking and the number and variety of living thing (plant and animals) is limited, we call it a desert ecosystem. Where the soil is compact, the air is hot and humid, water is abundant and the number of variety of life forms (biodiversity) is great, we call forest ecosystem. In other words, the nature of the environment in any locality is defined by the equilibrium (some kind of give and take) between these components; land, air, water and living things. This state of equilibrium is itself dynamic. It can undergo a natural rhythm of shifts within any locality but some sort of balance is always retained between incoming and outgoing energy and matter. Our interest in the environment has to do with the fact that our survival is intricately tied to the resources available within it.
Self – Assessment Exercise 1: a. Define the term environment b. What is environmental science? c. What determine the nature of the environment in a given place?
Environmental Resources: A natural resources is any naturally occurring substance or physical property of a place which is used in several forms to satisfy human needs. In other words, a resource is anything which has a value placed upon it. Due to their complexity and broad nature, natural resources are subdivided into two categories or types; the biological resources and physical resources. Biological resources comprise all forms of life used by man to satisfy his basic domestic, agricultural, commercial and industrial needs such as flora, fauna and microorganism among others. The physical resources on the other hand, include soil, water sunshine, air and mineral deposit among others. The higher the demand for anything (tangible or otherwise) the more its value as a resource. Part of the problem is that this value is dynamic both temporally and spatially. This is to be examined in module seven. At this juncture, it is important to note that the unused part of total resource which can be exploited economically given the technology available is known as RESERVE It could be summarized at this juncture that; The term environment encompasses all the physical, social and cultural factors and conditions around mankind and which influence his existence or development.
Physical components of the environment are four namely; 1. Land: Solid surface of the earth including all its topographic variety (mountain, hills, valleys, etc) 2. Water existing in all its form on the surface (lakes, rivers, stream, ocean etc) and beneath the surface (ground water reserves) and in the air (water vapor, ice crystals, cloud etc) 3. Air together with all its constituent gases, aerosols and other particles 4. Living things (plants and animals) in all their variety beneath the surface, on land, in the water and in the air. The interaction between them and the environment produces to a large extent, the variety in the nature of the environment from time to time and place to place.
Importance of the Environment: The environment is important for without it we cannot survive 1. Land provides the basis upon which food production is made possible 2. It is beneath the land that the rock and minerals which define modern development today are found 3. Land provides the necessary link between all the other component of the environment. 4. Water ;is essential for maintaining body fluid levels in all living things and a necessary ingredient in the production of food (Agriculture) 5. Water provides a habitat for a wide variety of plants and animals which are important as food as well as an important source of mineral resources e.g. salt, silica etc. Water is an important provider of recreational opportunities and is helpful as a pollution-free source of electric power. 7. Plant help to maintain climatic balance on the surface of the earth. 8. Plant provides a protective cover for the earth’s surface against degradation (erosion, desertification etc) in addition to providing wood for fuel, paper making and construction of houses and bridges. 9. These components are so closely tied to each other that whenever a change is introduce in any of them, all the others change and the environment subsequently changes. An example of this linkage shown in figure 1.1 is that, solar energy fuels (via the land) the atmospheric system which then determine global climate, these in turn, impose constraints on plant growth. Vibrant plant growth provides a habitat for abundant wildlife as well as means by which all animals (including human) are sustained with food. When land is distorted a s a result of human influence(s), the entire setup is upset and the negative influences are transmitted back to man. CONCLUSION In this unit we defined the term environment and discussed its components. We emphasized the linkages between various components and how these linkages combine to give the environment in each locality its nature.
SUMMARY In introducing this unit it was stated that, the environment encompasses all /living things and non-living features existing around (and including us) and interaction mechanisms between them. The following were discussed. - Environmental science - Environmental resource - Environmental Equilibrium - Environmental Factors - Importance of the Environment Interdependence of environmental factors. |
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UNIT 2: LAND (LITHOSPHERE) |
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Content 1. Introduction 2. Objectives 3. Main body 3.1 Definitions 3.2 Plate Tectonics 3.3 Types of boundaries 3.4 Volcanism 3.5 The rock cycle 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary
INTRODUCTION: The lithosphere which contains all of the cold, hard, solid rock of the planet’s crust (surface), the hot semi-solid rock that lies underneath the crust, the hot liquid rock near the centre of the planet, and the solid iron core (centre) of the planet. Of primary significance in a discussion of lithosphere as an environmental component are the processes which combine to define the nature of land. OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you should be able to: a. Describe the nature of the lithosphere b. Describe plate tectonics and volcanic eruption c. Explain different theories regards to plate tectonics
3.0 MAIN BODY 3.1 DEFINITIONS a. Significant Lithosperic Process: Two key processes which influence the nature of the land are; Plate tectonics and volcanic eruptions
PLATE TECTONICS Plate tectonic is the theory that earth’s outer layer is made up of plates, which have moved throughout earth’s history. The theory explains the how and why behind mountains, volcanoes and earthquakes as well as how long ago, similar animals could have lived at the same time on what are not widely separated continent. Back then; all /the major continents formed one giant super-continent called Pangaea Perhaps initiated by heat building up underneath the vast continent, Pangaea began to rift or split apart around 200 million years ago Oceans filled the areas between these sub-continents. The land masses continued to move apart, riding on separate plates, until they reached the position they currently occupy. ,these continents are still on the move today. Exactly what drives plate tectonics is not known. One theory is that convection within the earth’s mantel pushes the plates in much the same way that air heated by our body rises upward and is deflected sideways when it it reaches the ceiling Another theory is that gravity is pulling the older, colder and thus heavier ocean floor with more force than the newer lighter seafloor. Whatever drives the movement, plate tectonic activity takes place at four types of boundaries i. Divergent Boundaries where new crust is formed ii. convergent boundaries where crust is consumed iii. Collisional boundaries where two land masses collide and iv. Transform boundaries where two plates slide against each other
TYPE OF BOUNDARIES Divergent Boundaries: The earth longest mountain chain is an underwater chain of mountain 47,000 miles long. The chain runs down the middle of the Atlantic ocean (surfacing at Iceland), around Africa, through the Indian Ocean between Australia and Antarctica, and North through the Pacific Ocean. Running along the top of this chain of mountain is a deep crack called rift valley it is here that new ocean floor is continuously created. As the two sides of the mountain move away from each, magma wells up from the earth’s interior. It then solidifies into rock as it is cooled by the sear creating new ocean floors. The speed at which new ocean floor is created varies from one location on the ocean ridge to another. Between North America and Europe, the rate is about 2.2 inches (3.6cm) per year. At the east pacific, rise which is pushing a plate into the west coast of South America, the rate is 12.6 inches (32.2cm) per year. ii. Convergent Boundaries New crust is continually being pushed away from divergent boundaries (where sea-floor spreading occurs), increasing earth’s surface. But the earth isn’t getting any bigger. In locations around the world, ocean crust subducts, or slides under other pieces of earth’s crust. The boundary where the two plates meet is called convergent boundary. Deep trenches appear at these boundaries, caused by the oceanic plate bending downward into the earth. Deep below the earth’s surface, subduction causes partial melting of both the ocean crust and mantle as they slide past one another. This melting generates magma that makes its way to the surface, producing volcanoes, such as Mt. St. Helens. Most of the subducting plate continues into the mantle, perhaps to reappear much later at a distant divergent boundary. iii. Collision Boundaries: An ocean floor pushed towards a land mass will always slide under the land mass. This is because the land mass is more buoyant or lighter than the ocean floor. When two land masses meet, on the other hand, neither will slide under the other. Instead, the two crush together at what is known as a collisional boundary. The result is a mountain range. The Himalayas, the highest mountain in the world, were created this way (in fact, they are still growing). So were the European Alps. Even the Appalachian Mountain formed when two land masses came together. Although with the Appalachians, the crushing ended long ago, all that is left now are the eroded remnants of a once high mountain range. iv. Transform Boundaries Transform boundaries neither create nor consume crust. Rather, two plates move against each other, building up tension, then releasing the tension in a sudden and often violent jerk. This sudden jerk creates an earthquake. The San Andreas Fault in USA is the most famous transform boundary in the world. To the west of the fault it the Pacific plate, which is moving northwest. To the east is the North American Plate, which is moving southeast. Los Angeles, located on the Pacific Plate, is now 340 miles south of San Francisco, located on the North American Plate. In 16 million years, the plates will have moved so much that Los Angeles will be north of San Francisco. VOLCANISM A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a pool of molten rock below the surface of the earth. When pressure builds up, eruptions occur. Gases and rock shoot up through the opening and spill over or fill the air with lava fragments. Eruptions can cause lateral blasts, lava flows, hot ash flows, mudslides, avalanches, falling ash and floods. Volcano eruption has been known to knock down entire forests. An erupting volcano can trigger tsunamis, flash floods, earthquakes, mudflows and rock falls. Linked to high temperature and pressure inside the bowels of the earth, rock melt into thick fluids called molten magma. Whenever openings (or vents) get to the surface, hot molten rock is spilled onto the surface where they cool and solidify to form rocks. The texture and structure of the rocks formed depends on how fast the cooling occurs either beneath or on the surface. Once on the surface, these rocks are exposed to several influences which cause them to begin to change gradually. One such change is the disintegration (weathering) to form soils. This linkage of processes is termed the rock cycle. This is shown in figure 2.1. The rocks from which the soil from and the climatic conditions under which they form determine their characteristics and the use to which they can best be put. As important as soils are their processes of formation is slow and gradual. Thus, in any locality, the amount of land available is fixed (finite) land can however, be destroyed very rapidly through erosion and other forms of deterioration if not properly managed. This is discussed further in unit 3. CONCLUSION In this unit, we discussed further, the nature of land as an important component of the environment. SUMMARY In introducing this unit, it was stated that, the earth’s lithosphere includes the solid portion of the earth from its inner core shell together with all the variety of topographic features and rocks on, and beneath the surface. The following were discussed. - Plate tectonics - Types of boundaries - Volcanism - Rock cycle.
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UNIT 3: AIR (ATMOSPHERE) |
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INTRODUCTION: Since the creation of the earth, the atmosphere underwent many changes in different geological ages. It became more or less stable since 580 million years ago. This unit will discuss the atmosphere; its varied roles and a support of life on earth and how it is changing. OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you should be able to: - Define atmosphere - Explain Atmospheric Energy - Describe atmospheric gases or constituents - Explain the functions of the atmosphere - Describe the vertical structure of the atmosphere.
2.0 MAIN BODY 3.1 DEFINITION The atmosphere refers to the envelope of air (gases) surrounding the earth, held to the earth by a gravitational field strong enough to pr event the gases from escaping. It is the gas and aerosol envelope that extends from the ocean, land and ice-covered surface of the planet outward into space. The earth’s atmosphere extends outwards from the surface to about 1000Km above sea level. Most of the atmosphere is concentrated within the first few kilometers (about 16kms at the equator and 8Km at the poles) ‘of the earth’s surface. Because air has mass, the atmosphere exerts pressure on the earth’s surface. At sea level, this pressure is a bout 1034 grams per square centimeter. About 50% of the earth’s atmospheric mass is within 5.6km from sea level and about 99% of the earth’s atmosphere is within the first 4km. The atmospheric pressure density decreases outward (with height) because the gravitation attraction of the planet which pulls the gases and aerosols (microscopic suspended particles of dust, soot, .smoke or chemicals) inward (towards the earth), is greater close to the surface. Therefore, the higher the elevation (altitude) the lower the atmospheric pressure. Just as pressure change is experienced with ascent into the atmosphere, temperature also changes with increasing altitude but temperature changes are more complex because the vertical .temperature profile of the atmosphere is a variable. The variability depends ‘on upon the type of radiation that affects each atmospheric layers. This in turn depends upon the chemical composition of the layer. ATMOSPHERIC ENERGY The sun is the earth’s prime source of energy and it is this energy which controls the weather and climate of the earth. The sun has a surface temperature of about 6000oC. The sun’s energy t ravels through space for a distance of 150million kilometer and reaches the earth as solar or radiant energy in the process called insolation. The sun’s radiation is made up of three parts; the visible light, (white light which we cam see when the sun shines) the infrared and the ultra-violet rays.
SELF ASSESSMENT i. What is atmosphere? ii. From where is the main source of atmospheric energy?
ATMOSPHERIC GASES OR CONSTITUENT The air is made up of many gases and particles arranged in concentric layers each with unique characteristics. The principal constituents of the earth’s atmosphere are Nitrogen (about 78%) and oxygen (about 21%). The remaining 1% are Argon (0.9%), Carbon dioxide (0.03%) and varying amount of water vapor (0.20 to 4%). Other gases in trace amounts include ozone (0.00006%), hydrogen, methane, carbon monoxide, helium, neon, krypton, xenon, dust, sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide etc. of these gases, water vapor, ozone and carbon dioxide e have an importance far beyond their seemingly small amounts. FUNCTIONS OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1. The atmosphere protects all life from hazardous or deadly radiation from space (serves as a filter for UV- and X-rays from sun). 2. Allows the passage of the vitally important sunlight to the earth surface of the continents and oceans (energy source) 3. It protects the earth from rapid, cooling at night and heating at day. 4. The atmosphere makes possible a mean temperature on the earth’s surface of +15oC instead of -18oC as would be without atmosphere. 5. The atmosphere also transports energy (warmth of air that can be felt and latent warmth of water vapour) from the equatorial regions to medium and higher .latitudes. 6. It transports water vapour through dynamics processes of general air circulation that determines precipitation. 7. The atmosphere serves as storage for huge amounts of nitrogen (important for plants) and also serves as reservoir for carbon dioxide and oxygen. 8. It protects the earth from smaller meteorites that burn up by heating from the friction when entering the earth’s atmosphere and are thus prevented from reaching the surface. 9. The atmosphere also dissipates and decomposes natural and anthropogenic (man-made) emissions. SELF ASSESSMENT 2: i. What is the principal constituents of the earth atmosphere ii. Mention 3 functions of the atmosphere. VERTICAL TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE STRUCTURE OF THE ATMOSPHERE Based on temperature changes, the earth’s atmosphere can be conveniently divided into four distinct layer; moving outwards from the earth surface. These include; 1. Troposphere 2. Stratosphere 3. Mesosphere 4. Thermosphere (Ionosphere) 3.4.1 THE TROPOSPHERE This is the first and closet atmospheric layer to the earth’s surface. The altitudinal extent of this layer varies 8 – 16km above sea level. The name troposphere is derived from Greek tropein, which means to turn or change. The height of the troposphere is very de pendent on geographical latitude and season. Greatest height occurs at the tropics where warm temperatures, cause vertical expansion of the lower atmosphere. From the tropic to the polar region, the atmosphere becomes gradually thinner. The temperature of the troposphere near the earth’s surface is about 17oC largely due to absorption of infrared radiation from the surface by water vapour and other green house gases (e.g. carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide and methane). The concentration of these gases decreases with altitude. The troposphere also contains the largest percentage of the mass of the atmosphere (about 80%). Pressure also falls as the force of gravity decreases. A distinct characteristic that differentiates it from other layers of the atmosphere is that the water vapor and the particulates of the atmosphere are concentrated in this layer and are rarely found in the atmospheric layer above the troposphere. That is why most clouds are found in this lowest layer, too. Another physical characteristic of this layer is that temperature normally decreases with decreasing altitude. Air is warmest at the bottom of troposphere near ground level. Higher up it gets colder. Temperature drops (decrease) uniformly at the rate of about.6.5oC per kilometer of altitude. The phenomenon is commonly called the Environmental Laps Rate (ELR) or Normal Lapse Rate. With a continuous drop ion temperature, the temperature at the top of the troposphere is about -60oC. The troposphere is the layer where majority of the earth’s weather occurs. This layer is unstable and contains most of the atmosphere’s water vapour, cloud, dust and pollutants. The lower levels of the troposphere are usually strongly influenced by earth’s surface. This sub-layer, known as the planetary boundary layer, is that region of the atmosphere; in which the surface influences temperature, moisture and wind velocity through the turbulent transfer of atmospheric constituent. In general, there tends to be little turbulent above the boundary layer in the troposphere The troposphere is important because it is one of the key parts of the atmosphere that maintain the earth’s natural thermostat allowing for life to exist. It also host the water cycle and pressure system which help deliver water to most regions of the earth. Despite its importance to life on earth, it is quite a thin shell when compare with the rest of the atmosphere. The upper edge of the top of the troposphere is a narrow zone called the tropopause, which forms the upper limit of the earth’s weather and climate. It corresponds to the level in which the pattern of decreasing temperature with height ceases. It is replaced by a layer that is essentially isothermal where temperature remains constant or equal despite any increase in height. In the tropics and subtropics, the tropopause is high, often reaching to about 18km (11miles) as a result of vigorous vertical mixing of the lower atmosphere by thunderstorms. In Polar Regions where such deep atmospheric turbulence is much less frequent, the tropopause is often as low as 8km (5mile). Temperatures at the troposphere range from as low as -80oC (-112oF) in the tropic to -50oC (-58oF) in Polar Regions. THE STRATOSPHERE The stratosphere, which is the next major atmospheric layer is located above the troposphere and extends upwards from the tropopause (roughly about 12kms) to about 50km (30 miles) above sea level. It is characterized primarily as a stable, stratified layer (hence, stratosphere) with a large temperature inversion throughout. The stratosphere is very dry; air there contains little water vapour. Because of this, few clouds are found in this layer. The layer contains about 19.9% of the atmosphere’s total mass. The temperature profile of the stratosphere is quite different from that of the troposphere. The temperature of the lower part of the stratosphere remains relatively constant. (About -75oC or -70oF) up to an altitude of about 25km. here also, pressure continues to fall and the air is dry. The amount of water vapour in the stratosphere is very low, so it is not an important factor in the temperature regulation of the atmosphere. Because of temperature stratification there is little convection and mixing in the stratosphere so that the layer of air there are quite stable. Commercial jet aircraft fly in the lower stratosphere to avoid the turbulent which is common in the troposphere below. Therefore, the main impact the stratosphere has on weather is that its stable air prevent large storms from extending much beyond the tropopause. From 25km above sea level, the temperature gradually increase with increase in altitude and reaches 0oC (32oF) at about 50km. because of the increasing temperature with increasing height (temperature inversion) there is only very limited vertical movement. The high temperatures found in this region of the stratosphere occur mainly because of the localized concentration of ozone (O3) gas molecules which causes the observed temperature inversion. Most of the ozone in the atmosphere is contained in a layer of the atmosphere roughly between 20 – 34kms. This layer is referred to as the ozone layer. The ozone layer absorbed incoming solar ultra-violet (UV) radiation and the energy is ultimately dissipated or released as heat within the stratosphere. It is this heat that leads to the rise in temperature. Ozone is formed when ultraviolet radiation dissociates diatomic oxygen (O2) and the detached single ozone atom attaches to O2 to produce ozone (O3). Natural stratospheric ozone is produced mainly in the tropical and middle latitude. Stratospheric ozone is very important for living organisms on the surface ,of the earth as it protects them by absorbing most of the harmful UV radiation from the sun. in fact, without the ozone layer, life would not exist on the earth’s surface. The stratosphere also acts as a protective shield against meteorites (pieces of rocks from outer space) which burns out as they enter the earth’s gravitational field. Today, natural (stratospheric) ozone is been threatened by human activities particularly the use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons (chlorofluorobromine compounds) by human in recent decade has greatly affected the natural ozone cycle by increasing the rate of its destruction due to the reaction with chlorine. A severe decrease in the concentration of ozone in the ozone layer could lead to the following harmful effect: · An increase in the incidence of skin cancer (ultraviolet radiation can destroy acids in DNA) · A large increase in cataracts and sun burning · Suppression of immune systems in organisms · Adverse impact on crops and animals · Reduction in the growth opf phytoplankton fund in the Earth’s oceans · Cooling of the earth’s stratosphere and possibly some surface climatic effect. Within the ozone region of the stratosphere, there is stability with little turbulent vertical mixing. The warm temperature and very dry result in an almost cloud-free volume. On top of the stratosphere is another isothermal boundary (transition zone) called stratopause which separate the stratosphere from the atmosphere. It lies around 45 – 50km (28 – 31miles) in altitude above the earth and has a pressure of 1 millibar (approximately equal 0.75mm of mercury at 0oC). Temperature in this region is about the same temperature found on the earth’s surface.
SELF ASSESSMENT I. What Atmosphere? II. When is Ozone formed? III. Where is Ozone formed?
MESOSPHERE The mesosphere, which means middle sphere, is the third layer of earth’s atmosphere between the stratosphere and the thermosphere. It extends from the stratosphere to roughly about 85km above the earth’s surface. The air is extremely thin at this level. The layer has very negligible amounts of water vapor, ozone cloud and dust and absorbs incoming radiation, so temperature drops rapidly across the layer with increasing altitude. It is this layer that experiences the atmosphere’s lowest temperature, with air temperature reaching its coldest value around -90oC (-130oF) at the top. The air is very thin, the density is about 1/1000 that of the surface, there is very little water vapor and the concentration of ozone is negligible. With increasing altitude, the layer becomes increasingly dominated by lighter gases. At the top of the mesosphere is another transition zone which shows no change in temperature known as the mesopause. The percentage of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon dioxide in the air in the mesosphere is essentially the same as that in the levels of the earth’s atmosphere immediately above the earth’s surface. The principal differences are that the density of the air is much less, there is very little vapour in the mesosphere and the mesosphere contains higher percentage of ozone than the lower levels. THERMOSPHERE The term thermosphere was derived from Greek word ‘thermos’ (meaning heat). The thermosphere is a warm layer above the mesosphere and the last layer of the earth’s atmosphere. It is the biggest of all the layer of the earth’s atmosphere. In this layer, there is significant temperature inversion. Thermospheric temperatures increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation (especially UV radiation) by the small amount of residual oxygen and other molecules still present. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity and can rise to 1500oC (2,730oF). Although, the thermosphere is considered part of earth’s atmosphere, the air density is so low in this layer that most of the thermosphere is often thought of as outer space. Also, the auroras are formed when charged particles (electron, protons, and other ions) from space collide with atoms and molecules in the atmosphere at high altitudes and excite them into higher energy states. Those atoms and molecules shed this excess energy by emitting photons of light, which are visible as aurora displays. The thermosphere may be sub-divided into two: the lower thermosphere also called ionosphere and the upper thermosphere otherwise referred to as the exosphere. However unlike the layer discussed previously, there is no well defined boundary between the ionosphere and the exosphere. The air of the lower thermosphere is primarily made up of atomic oxygen (O) atomic nitrogen (N), helium (He) and hydrogen. Energetic ultraviolet and X-ray radiations; much of which is absorbed from the sun in this layer often break apart these molecules to create electrically-charged ions of atoms and molecules. These charged particles (ions) are abundant in this zone, hence, the name ionosphere. Extending from about 85 to 600km in altitude, the ionosphere is therefore an electrically conducting region capable of reflecting radio signals back to earth thereby aiding in transmitting communication and broadcast signals to distant regions of the earth. The ionosphere also helps shield the earth from harmful shortwave radiation. The upper section of the thermosphere which forms the outer region of the earth’s atmosphere is known as the exosphere. The exosphere represents the final transition between the atmosphere and the interplanetary space. It extends from about 60km to about 100km above the earth’s surface and contains mainly Helium and hydrogen. The exosphere ‘is the region where molecules from the atmosphere can overcome the pull and escape into outer space. Most modern artificial satellites and balloons are launched into this region. Also molecules concentrations are very small and considered negligible. SELF ASSESSMENT What is Mesosphere? What is Exosphere?
CONCLUSION: In this unit we discussed the atmosphere, its varied roles as support of life on earth and how it is changing SUMMARY In introducing this unit, it was stated that the atmosphere is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth and the following were discussed. In doing so, the following were discussed · Atmosphere was defined and discuss · Atmospheric energy · Atmospheric gases and constituents · Functions of the atmosphere · The vertical temperature and pressure structure of the atmosphere.
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UNIT 4: HYDROSPHERE |
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Contents Introduction Objectives Main body Water availability Uses of water Conclusion Summary INTRODUCTION The hydrosphere encompasses water in all its forms; vapour (in the air), liquid (in the air as rain droplets, on land as water in rivers, oceans, streams lakes and beneath the surface as ground water) and solid (as ice cap, glacier and snow on the surface of the earth and ice crystals within the cloud). The variety of process behinds these state of water and the pathways which link them is referred to as the water (or hydrologic) cycle. OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you should be able to: · Explain the term hydrosphere as an important component of the environment · Describe water cycle and water availability · Explain uses of water
MAIN BODY Water availability Water covers a very conservative estimate of about 70% of the earth surface. Yet because most of it is saline water in oceans, only a small fraction (about 1%) of the fresh water is available directly for human consumption. The tiny fraction of the fresh water is itself not evenly distributed across the surface of the earth. Some places are so wet (swampy) /while others are very dry and are deserts. The volume of the earth’s water is estimated at about 1,262,736,900km2 with the following percentage distribution
Ocean - 96.53%
Polar Ice Caps & Glacier - 2.15%
Ground water - 0.31%
Surface water Lake & stream - 1% Atmosphere - 0.1% The geographic location of any place and its climate has a strong bearing on the availability of water. The water cycle is self-sustaining if undisturbed. Once any part of it is distorted, the entire cycle is disrupted and changes in water availability are bound to result. For example, where vegetal cover is cleared discriminately, infiltration is reduced and runoff (plus attendant erosion) is enhanced. Reduced infiltration leads to reduced and runoff (plus attendant erosion) is enhanced. Reduced infiltration leads to reduced or lowered groundwater reserves and consequent recharge of rivers and streams in the dry season. Thus, perennial streams become seasonal and may subsequently dry out. USES OF WATER 1. It ensures continuous supply of water to living organisms, thereby enhancing their productivity and sustaining life on the earth’s surface. 2. It provides avenues for transportation, since goods and people are transported through the oceans, lake and rivers 3. Provides food in the form of fish and other marine products 4. source of important minerals like (Petroleum and salt) 5. Useful in power generation (e.g. Shiroro, Jebba and Kainji dams) 6. Utilized for recreation and tourism (e.g. boating, swimming, river transport) 7. Water is important for domestic uses (drinking, cooking, washing and bathing etc) 8. Agricultural uses (rainfall and irrigation farming as well as for keeping livestock fishing and aquaculture). 9. Industrial use (cooling, processing and packaging) CONCLUSION In this unit we examine water as an important component of the environment in terms of its availability. SUMMARY In introducing this unit, it was stated that hydrosphere encompasses water in all its forms vapor (in the air) liquid (in the air as rain drops on land and as water in rivers, oceans, streams and lakes and beneath the surface a s ground water) and sold (as ice caps glaciers and snow on the surface of the earth and ice crystal within clouds) and the following were discussed. i. Water availability ii. Water uses iii. Water cycle
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UNIT 5: BIOSPHERE (FLORA AND FAUNA) |
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Content 1. introduction 2. Objectives 1.0 Main Body 1.1 Definitions 1.2 Ecosystem 1.3 Role of Plant 1.4 Energy flows in the ecosystem 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary INTRODUCTION Having outlined the places of land, air and water as environmental building blocks, we shall be looking at plant and animals’ life and how they complete the environmental picture described in module 1. OBJECTIVE After studying this unit, you should be able to · Define Biosphere · Describe an ecosystem · Discuss roles of plant and · Discuss energy flow in the ecosystem MAIN BODY Definition The biosphere refers to the part of land water and air in which plants (flora) and animals (fauna) live. In other words, the biosphere refers to any part of the earth surface that is occupied by living organisms. Living organisms that are composed essentially of organic compounds (i.e. carbon containing compounds), broadly grouped as plants and animals. The organisms range from microscopic plant and animas to very large species of plants and animals. It is estimated that there exist about 1 million different species of animals and about 34 million plants species. These plants and animals interact with themselves as well as with their immediate environment to form ecological system or ecosystems. ECOSYSTEM Ecosystems are ecological units that include all the living or biotic factors and non-biotic factors in an area. Example include such as pounds, caves, or portions of a forest or desert. The abiotic factors determine the types of organisms that can successfully live in a particular area. Some of the major non-living factors of an ecosystem include; · Water - all living things require some water, but some can live with lesser amounts · Temperature - all living things have a range of temperature in which they can survive; beyond those limits they will have difficult time. · Oxygen – Many living things require oxygen; it is necessary for cellular respiration, a process used to obtain energy from food; others are actually killed by the presence of oxygen (certain bacterial) · Soil – The type of soil, PH, amount of water it holds, available nutrients, etc. determine what types of organisms can successfully live in or on the soil; for example can live in sand, cattle on soil saturated with water. BIOTIC FACTORS: Biotic factors include the plants, animals, fungi, bacterial and any other living things that live in an area. Categories include: · Produce or autotrophs make their own food. Producers, such as plants make food through a process called photosynthesis. In photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide and water to make sugar. This ‘food is used, by the plant for its own energy or may be eaten by consumers. · Consumers or heterotrophs need to eat food that autotrophs have produced. There are different types of consumers. Herbivores eat plant. Carnivore eats animals. Omnivore eats both plants and animals. · Decomposers are heterotrophs that break down dead tissues and waste products. They play a very important role in the ecosystem because they recycle nutrients. Bacterial and fungi are decomposers. The biosphere exists in the lithosphere, the hydrosphere and the atmosphere. The lithosphere (land) houses a great percentage of plant and animals. Plant life (vegetation) is categorized into forest, grasslands, deserts etc. The animals on land inhabit all areas where plant are found. The animals include animals that inhabit trees-tops such as birds, monkeys and big insects, the ground is inhabited by creeping and crawling insects, rodents and big animals, while the soil often covered with litters is home to earthworms, bacterial and other microscopic organisms. Life in the oceans is basically in three forms: planktons, nektons and benthoses. Planktons are microscopic plants and animals which possess little or no power of movement and serve as food to other creatures. They are found within a few meters from the surface of the oceans and are drifted about ocean wave and currents. The nektons are marine organisms which can freely swim about (such as fish, whales etc). Benthoses are mostly animals that are found in the ocean deeps. They creep on the ocean floor, burrow in it or remain fixed to a spot. Life in the atmosphere consists of very tiny creatures that are largely airborne. They include viruses and bacteria which can only be detected with the use of microscopes. Natural ecosystems are maintained by a strict sense of interdependence between component entities as discussed above. Thus, natural ecosystem can be destroyed easily if these interdependent links or linkage are removed or tempered with. SELF ASSESSMENT 1. Define ecosystem 2. Ecosystem is made from two main components; biotic and abiotic. Give examples of each ROLES OF PLANT Each individual helps to: 1. Protect the soil watersheds and moderate micro-climate (Climate with small surroundings) 2. Hold the soil together, allow for infiltration or rain water into the ground (a process necessary for ground water recharge) 3. Prevent runoff from eroding the soil 4. Enhance convection through reduced reflection of incident radiation and through evaporation and 5. Maintain nutrients cycle through shedding of their parts. ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM Green plants form the basis of an ecosystem because they harness the sun’s energy and in addition to water, carbon dioxide and other elements, produce food. They are thus called primary producers. Herbivorous animals which derive their energy by eating plants are called primary consumers Carnivorous (meat eating) animals which eat herbivores are called secondary consumers. When they die, they are broken down (decay and disintegrated) into their constituent elements by microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi. These constituents (elements) are then returned to the soil for reabsorption by green plant. SELF ASSESSMENT 1. What are the primary producers 2. Mention 5 roles of plants
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Having examine the nature of the environment, this module looks at the unique position of man within his environment and the responsibilities attached thereto Contents 1. Introduction 2. Objectives 3. Main Body 4. School of thoughts 5. Man as an active agents of change 6. Man’s over use of resource 7. Results of inaction 8. The cause for concern 9. Conservation Strategies 10. Conclusions 11. Summary INTRODUCTION In the complexity of the environmental interactions discussed hitherto, man may appear to be a passive participant. In order words, man appear on the surface to be no more than an element within variety of elements that make up the environment. He could easily be mistaken to be subject to control by his environment OBJECTIVES After this unit, you should be able to · Understand the role of man as an agent of change within his environment · Explain 3 schools of thought in Environmental studies · Understand the role of man’s inaction MAIN BODY School of thought Three different school of thoughts exist with regards to man environment modification a. Environmental Determinism: One school of thought has it that the environment determines completely what course(s) of action are open to man. This means the environment completely determines what man does. An example of this is the Eskimos, where the environment or climate is completely in control of what man does, what he (eat, wear, build etc.) b. Environmental Possibilism: Another school of thought has it that, the environment limits man’s actions to a range of choices, within which he exercises some freedom. In other words, humans have the ultimate power to adjust to their environment. A good example of this is Israel; where fruits and plants are grown using greenhouse even though their climate does not favor the growth of this plant and vegetables. This opposed the theory of environmental determinism c. Environmental Probabilism: Another school has it that man adapts to the environment and in some cases, he modifies the environment to suit his needs through sound environmental engineering as opposed to environmental determism. For example man construct aeroplanes, cars, ships etc. to ease transportation, he construct air conditions and fans to modify the air around him etc. environmental probabilism is an extension of environmental possibilsm. These opinions illustrate clearly the lack of consensus on how man fits into the environment. MAN AS AN ACTIVE AGENT OF CHANGE What the views above do not point out is the fact that man remains the most active agent of change in the environment. He alone has the power to decide what value any element within the environment acquires. He decides what amount of what resources is exploited and to what ends. In summary, man is the only element within the environment that has learnt to use his intelligence to suit him. · He builds roads to make his journey smooth; he builds houses to protect him from the elements of weather and make clothes to meet his needs. · Man has learnt to defy the forces of nature by flying in the air and sending spacecraft into space. He has learnt to build computers and evolves technologies which make once unimaginable things possible. MAN’S OVERUSE OF RESOURCE In the whole of these, resources utilization is involved and the desire to remove more of the resources increases with very new leap in man’s social evolution. Consequently, as defined in module 1, resources are important only because they meet or help to meet man’s need of the present. Part of the reason why this believe exist is that, man has come to believe that his knowledge of science and technology is enough to provide him with alternatives if and when problem begins to emerge (e.g. use of air condition type of dress to wear etc). The trouble is that experience thus far has indicated that some of the catastrophic consequences of today’s action could come about so slowly that we may not prevent (at least not early enough to do anything about them). Worse still, we are not even in agreement as to the need to do anything about these problems (even for those already here with us e.g. global warming, climate change etc.) A good illustration of this lack of direction is the current debate between developed and developing countries as to who gets to pay for the cost of, on one hand, protecting tropical rainforest (in developing countries) and on the other hand the cost of necessary investment in research with a view to producing Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC), methane etc. (in developed countries) RESULT OF INACTION While this debate is on, large expanses of tropical forests are destroyed yearly to make room for agricultural land, or mining activities or in some cases, to meet human energy needs. At the same time, huge volumes of harmful chemicals are poured into the atmosphere every year depleting more ozone and causing more global warming in addition to causing serious shifts in weather patterns. (e.g. pattern of rainfall and harmattan seasons are all changing). Details of these problems are discussed in module 3 but it is important to note that their emphasis does not suggest man should not seek to utilize resource at his disposal. SELF- ASSESSMENT - How does man overuse his resource? - What are CFCs? - What causes Ozone depletion?
THE CALL FOR CONCERN The argument from environmental point of view is built around the following; · As stated in module 1, virtually all resources are finite (limited in supply). Thus their utilization must not proceed at such levels as to supersede their renewal. · The need for the living today to recognize that the generation yet unborn have the same rights to these resources as do themselves. Morally, it must be recognized that if earlier generations of humans have used the resources of the earth as they are being used today, none would be left for us to play around with. This is termed intergenerational equity · Resources must therefore be seen as items we hold in trust for future generations – and abuse of which must be avoided at all costs. · These notions combined, gave rise to the concept of sustainable development define as that development process which allows the present generation the satisfaction of its need from the resources available without diminishing the ability to the future generation to do the same · To do this, every society must endeavor to bring about equilibrium between its actions and the carrying capacity of the environment · There exist the need for man to recognize that the survival of his species rest on the conservation of the resources available. CONSERVATION STRATEGIES The point discussed above is to be based on three conservation strategies if it is to be successful. These are; #1 That resource must not be utilized such that they are exhausted. What man has done to European Herring, the South American Anchovies and is still doing to Whales, suggest that he is yet to learn his lesson #2 That man must not interfere with the basic environmental process on land in the water and in the air. Yet, man pours poisonous substances into the air, pollutes water with industrial and domestic wastes and cuts down vegetal covers indiscriminately. #3 That man must strive to maintain biodiversity (diversity of life on earth) not only because (as stated in module 1 unit 5) he depends on it for food, even though it is true, not because he could be losing something the true value of which he may as yet not know even though it is true as well, but principally because he reserves no moral rights to exterminate any life from he so pleases.
SELF-ASSESSMENT 1. What is intergenerational equity? 2. What is sustainable development? CONCLUSION In this unit, we tool a look at the unique position of man within his environment and the responsibilities attached to it. SUMMARY In this unit the following were discussed; - Man is an integral part of his environment and his wellbeing depends on it s sanity. This state of sanity is however subject to the degree of man’s interference. He has such a real and potential power to alter the environment that he exist a strict sense of control if he is not to destroy the environment with himself inclusive. - The negative consequences of his past actions are already here even as a general sense of apathy prevents meaningful combative action. - Man must begin to use his power to ensure that environment not only sustains his activities, but remains good enough to sustain generations yet unborn. |
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PROBLEMS EMANATING FROM MAN-ENVIRONMENT INTERACTIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS This module examines the problems which have resulted from the interaction of man environment interactions. It emphasizes man’s responsibilities as causative agents and suggests solutions
UNIT 1: Deforestation Land Degradation and Desertification Content Introduction Objectives Main body Definitions Deforestations pattern Trends in Niger state Bad land clearing Migration trend Conclusion Summary INTRODUCTION The interaction between man and his environment as highlighted in the previous module, has led to a variety of problems. The following section contains highlights of the major problems. OBJECTIVES After studying this module, you should be able to - Define deforestation, land de gradation and desertification - To link the 3 as they relate to each other and - Describe migration trend as regards to resource exploitation
MAIN BODY Definition Deforestation: Act of destroying or removing forest vegetation for commercial and other uses (e.g Agriculture) with little or no effort of replacement that eventually results into ecological imbalance or degradation. Land degradation: Persistent decrease in the productivity of vegetation and soil Desertification: is a process of creating a dessert like environment. In other words, desertification is a negative change from a productive to a less productive, or transfers of the unproductive characteristics of one area (such as a desert) to another. Deforestation Patterns: Trees cover more than 25% of the earth’s land surface. All over the world however, these forest are being destroyed in the search for agricultural land and land for construction of roads and settlements among other human activities. Today, more than a third of Europe’s forest (some 50 million hectares) has been harmed to varying degree by air pollution, soil acidification and disease. The same applied to North America and East Asia. In the tropic (Africa), 16.8 million, hectares are destroyed every year By agricultural expansion, ranching, logging and over exploitation for fuel wfrr ood (to m meet the needs of some 2billion people).yv Trends in Niger is taking its toll on forest/woodland cover. This cover type which avera4u k a general decline of 4 – 5% every year. In Mokwa LGA, for example, vegetation decreases from 54.15% in 1996 to 47.47% in 2000 and decrease further to 25.86% in 2008. These changes are attributed to massive fuel wood exploitation for commercial purposes in the area as shown in figure 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3 and also in plate 3.1 and 3.2 BAD LAND CLEARING The exposed soils which took thousands (sometimes, millions) of years to form are destroyed in a year or two. Their fertility is lost and the agents of erosion are given an unhindered access to carry off what is left. In this way, 15% of the world’s soils are degraded. Of this loss about 55.7% has been raised by water erosion, 28% by wind erosion, 12.1% by chemical degradation and 4.2% by physical interference. In the dry/semi-dry lands which are common in this country f or example, the resulting desertification affects about half of the rain fed cropland, nearly three-quarters of the rangeland and nearly a third of the irrigated areas. MIGRATION TRENDS: Problems associated with the above discussed trend have already surfaced. A good example is in the Gwari-Speaking areas of Niger state where many farmers leave their homes every year in the search for new agricultural lands (often across socio-cultural boundaries). Serious problems could result if strategies are not put in place now to forestall any possible conflicts over the right access to land. THE OZONE LAYERS Ozone layer is made of three oxygen atoms together O3 instead of two which is what normal oxygen gas is made of, is vital to life on earth. It forms a layer in the stratosphere, the second layer up in the atmosphere, which is very good at absorbing ultraviolet (UV) radiation from the sun. UV radiation severely damages organisms if enough of it reaches the surface. Climate Change: this refers to a statistic ally significant variation in either the mean state of the climate or in its variability, persisting for an extended period (typically decades or longer). Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external forces or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the atmosphere or in land use. PROBLEM OF OZONE DEPLETION Problems associated with ozone layer depletion are already here with us. Skin cancer and cataract cases are on the increase. Other disturbing trends are the destruction of the base of all marine ecosystems (phytoplankton) and damage to food crops and other green plant. At the 1980 rate emission of CFCs, the ozone layer could be reduced by about 3% by the middle of the next c century. Small this may seem, but each 1% reduction raises UV radiation to 2% worldwide, this could mean 10,000 more cases of blindness and 50,000 more cases of non-Melanoma cancer every year. POTENCY OF CHLORINE One distinguishing reality is that even the nations of the world were to agree today to stop the production of CFCs, the chlorine already in the atmosphere has enough potency to remain active for the next century.
CLIMATE CHANGE Naturally, radiation from the sun passes through the atmosphere warms the earth and is reflected back into space. .Greenhouse gasses present in the atmosphere trap some of this radiation keeping the planet warm enough for plants to flourish. This natural greenhouse warming is presently going out of control as a result of human influences. CO2 concentrations are now 25% higher than they were before the industrial age and are increasing by 0.5% each year. This has the potential of heating the earth by between 2 to 5oC in the next century. Such a change is unprecedented in the last 10,000 years.
RECENT TRENDS: Annual global temperature has been on the increase since the last couple of decades, with every decade warmer than the previous one. Serious shift in climatic patterns have been occurring across the globe. The recursive droughts in the West African sub-region are an illustration of this trend. Even apparently normal rainfall seasons these days, are accompanied by such uncertainties that No one is sure of when they will start and when they will end. The recent severe Harmattan haze over the country is also an indication of these shifts.
DETERIORATION OF FRESH WATER RESOURCES Limited Freshwater Resources As stated in module 4, less than 2/3 of the water on earth is freshwater. Of this amount, 99% is out of reach – frozen up in ice caps and glaciers, or buried deep underground. In spite of this, water withdrawal has been on the increase due directly to increase in human populations and water use in homes in industrial complex and on agricultural lands.
WATER POLLUTION: A consequence of misuse (in the face of these shortages) is the pollution of water with a variety of substances, industrial and human wastes, agricultural fertilizers acid rain and sewage from toxic waste dumps. Agricultural land use on river banks and on watersheds leads to sediment drafting into rivers and streams thereby causing sedimentation. Our lakes are also not spared (since they are fed by some of these rivers and stream). Many rivers and streams are no longer perennial (they no longer flows the whole year) (they are seasonal. Those that remain perennial are so depreciated that they harbour permanent “islands” on their beds. We stand to lose the use of these rivers as media of transportation in addition to losing substantial amounts of fish and other freshwater resources. The performance of hydroelectric power generation schemes in Shiroro, Kanji and Jebba is under serious threat if this trend is not arrested. In the Niger Delta area of Nigeria, oil pollution has damaged large expanses of land and polluted rivers killing plants animals and disrupting the local socio-economic environment.
DESTRUCTION OF BIODIVERSITY Current estimates have it that there are some 30 million plants and animal species on Earth. Of this number, only about 1.5 million have ever been described. Species could appear and disappear naturally over time and space. Human activities fishing, hunting, pollution, deforestation, monoculture farming are however speeding up this process. About one-quarter of the earth’s species may be lost in the next 30 years as a result of these activities. Example of this exists even in our immediate environment. Vultures (African Vulture) are not as common as they used to be around here. They may not have gone to extinct but it is obvious that they have left because conditions are no longer conducive. The annual tradition of bush burning no doubt kills several species of rodent and other smaller organism. Exactly what number of species is lost is our collective guess. GENERATION OF WASTE AND TOXIC CHEMICALS Human development related activities ensure the production of between 1000 and 2000 new organic and inorganic chemicals Many of these are toxic and are released directly as pesticides or fertilizers and indirectly as wastes from mining, industrial processes, incineration and fuel combustion. Many poisonous gases are pushed into atmosphere from industrial complexes on earth w here, in our mistaken belief they are meant to disappear and be lost in its vastness. Thus, gases choke human beings while they walk the street. These gases often lead to acid rainfall which is detrimental to plant and animals. Solid and liquid wastes from domestic sources litter our streets abd fill our drainage channels. Health hazards occur as an immediate result. SOLUTIONS LAND-RELATED PROBLEMS -Raise awareness about the dangers of the problems -Enforce laws against uncontrolled bush burning -Convince farmer s to plant more than one crop in the same farm -Encourage crop rotation and fallowing -Encourage farmers to plant cross slopes to prevent soil wash -Encourage ,the practice of alley farming and agro-forestry -Farmers should replenish soil nutrients by adopting organic farming (applying manure) and mulching -Adopt good land management practices -Plant trees a s shelterbelts. -Plant grasses and other appropriate vegetal cover types in erosion-prone areas -Encourage contour ploughing across the slope to reduce the threat of erosion. -Discourage the misapplication of synthetic fertilizers and other Agro-Chemicals. AIR RELATED PROBLEMS -Put in place environmental awareness programmes to educate people on the dangers of atmospheric pollution. -Encourage collective action to discourage the use of chemicals which are of negative impacts (e.g. CFCs and CO2). -Discourage the practice of bush which pollute the atmosphere -Stop gas flaring in the process of mining petroleum -Industrial concerns must be asked and, where necessary, forced to filter their smoke stacks to prevent pollution. -Discourage the use of automobiles that are not roadworthy WATER-RELATED PROBLEMS -Enhance people’s awareness of the need to conserve available water -Watersheds /should be protected from deforestation and erosion which damage them. -Erosion-control measures should be adopted. In particular, river and stream banks should not be cleared of their cover. -Farmers should be encouraged to adopt water conservation measure on their farms through mulching, tree planting and appropriate irrigation. -Efforts must be made to stop the discharge of water into our water system to prevent pollution. -Portable water must be handled with great care to prevent the outbreak of epidemics. BIOSPHERE-RELATED PROBLEM -Promote the education of all and sundry to recognize the interdependence of life forms -Effort must be made to protect wildlife resources through the establishment of reserves and discouraging bush burning. -Encourage the identification and protection of fragile ecosystem, -Encourage the formation of community-level resource conservation team to be responsible for coordinating a wise management of local resources -Establish a programme to identify and protect endangered plant and animal species to avoid their extinction
OTHERS. -Encourage cooperation between different sectors on issues related to environmental management -Owing to the global dimensions of many of the problems of environmental management, international frontiers must be established in the fight against degradation.
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MODLUE 4 : ENVIRONMENT OF THE FUTURE - THE ROLE OF STAKEHOLDERS |
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THIS PAGE WAS DELIBERATELY LEFTY BLANK. CONTENT CONSIDERED TRIVIAL
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| Lecturers:
NOTE BY: Dr. MT Usman Aishatu Bello Hassan, department of Geography, FUTMinna. Typed by MR. THOMAS BELLO, Computer Science Department, FUTMinna for InfoMAS.
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